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approximately normally distributed with mean 1387 grams and standard deviation 161 grams.

What proportion of broilers weigh between 1100 and 1200 grams?

What is the probability that a randomly selected broiler weighs more than 1500 grams?

SHORT QUESTION (ESSAY / CASE STUDY / EXERCISE)
1. Read the two cases of Barbican Bank and Intermarket of Zimbabwe and answer the questions below
Barbican Bank (BB)
Barbican Bank was formed in the late 1990s at the height of a rush into the financial services sector by domestic investors. It was born out of an asset management company. The founder was a flamboyant businessman who was a public figure in the financial services sector. At formation the bank declared its focus would be the elite market. Its products were therefore targeted specifically at the top market. The bank also declared an intention to operate a very small branch network, no more than five branches. Barbican started experiencing liquidity problems in early 2003 and was placed under the curator in March 2003. Before being placed under the curator Barbican had been reporting fabulous profits most of them having come from non interest transactions. According to the Central Bank, Barbican ‘‘was experiencing serious liquidity problems as a result of imprudent banking behaviours. There was no clear separation between various related entities within the group which led to cross funding of operations and excessive risk taking among other shortcomings.’’ The Central Bank also noted that the bank was involved in ‘‘questionable cross-border foreign exchange activities.’’ The bank had shifted funds to South Africa from local operations with the object of establishing a new company in South Africa. During its operation the bank introduced the derivatives (junk bonds) market, which had been non-existent in the country’s financial sector. When liquidity problems besieged Barbican the Central Bank placed the banking division under the curator and the asset management company under liquidation. At the time of taking these measures the Central Bank had injected money into the bank as liquidity support but the bank appeared to be on a serious slide. The bank has since failed to repay on time the loan from the Central bank’s Troubled Bank Fund. On seeing his financial companies in difficulties, the Chief Executive (the founder) skipped the country. Despite problems in the home operations, the founding chief executive was trying to set up another financial services company in South Africa. During his tenure the Chief Executive is said to have been so dominant the board appeared clueless and powerless to restrain him. The bank has now been placed into
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PROGRAMME BACHELOR OF COMMERCE IN FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
MODULE FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 3F
TOTAL MARKS 20 MARKS
liquidation by the Central Bank. It will be amalgamated into a merger of liquidated banks to form a new bank.
Intermarket (IM)
The founder established Intermarket Holdings during the late 1990s through acquisitions. At the time of inset of financial distress, the founder owned 72 percent of Intermarket Holdings through an investment company called Transnational Holdings. Transnational Holdings comprised companies in banking and insurance among others. Its influence in the financial services sector was in every sphere. Intermarket Banking Corporation one of the subsidiaries of the holding company started showing signs of liquidity problems in early 2004. This was during the period of a cash crisis in the country. Much as all banking institutions were affected by the cash crisis, Intermarket appeared completely outstretched by the crisis. In March 2004 the bank was placed under the management of a curator by the Central Bank when it appeared it could not pay its creditors and depositors on demand. On investigation, the Central Bank discovered that the Executive Chairman had loaned himself Z$90 billion of depositors’ money and the insider loans were not being serviced. The Executive Chairman was said to have been so dominant he had the veto power on everything that took place in the corporation. Investigations by the appointed curator have led to a rise in the figure for insider loans to Z$174 billion. The Executive chairman fled the country when authorities appeared to point at him as the main contributor to financial distress in the institution. Intermarket has been trying to enter into partnership with other banking institutions, in order to shore up its capital, without much success. Instead Finhold, another Zimbabwean financial institution whose banking subsidiary is owed Z$100 billion is positioning itself to take over major shareholding in Intermarket Bank through a combination of cash and debt swap. Finhold’s strategy is an attempt to protect possible collapse of Intermarket since it is a major creditor. Intermarket has to raise its capital base to Z$10 billion before 30 September 2004 as per regulatory authority requirements. Fraud by some IM employees taking advantage of weak management systems has exacerbated financial distress in Intermarket. The curator has however opened the banking division for limited services to depositors.
a) The liquidity problems experience by Barbican Bank and Intermarket bank were as a result of poor risk management. Discuss? (6 marks)
b) Identify the speculative risk that was taken by Barbican Bank? (2 marks)
c) Lack of board independence inadvertently creates an epicentre for corporate governance failures. Discuss using the two cases and outline the ideal role of a board in corporate governance and risk management (4 marks)
Discuss the benefits of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM)? (4 marks)
Discuss how an audit committee would have to test the effectiveness of the risk management arrangements in place? (4 marks)

The liquidity problems experience by Barbican Bank and Intermarket bank were as a result of poor risk management. Discuss?

Question 1
Explain how databases help ensure that organizations can maintain data integrity.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

Question 2

Compare how the data in transactional databases differs from that in data warehouses?

Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

Question 3
What is the relevance of data mining in organizations?

Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

Imagine that you are hired as a CIO of a quickly growing retail chain with an online presence. You have growing transactional databases but want to build a business intelligence infrastructure. You also have various departments within your company with databases such as marketing, customer service, accounts payable, sales, and accounts receivable. What would your proposed business intelligence infrastructure consist of? Justify your decisions.

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Compare and contrast databases and database management.
6.1 Explain the importance of maintaining data for IT professionals in organizations.
6.2 Describe the capabilities of databases and database management in organizations.
6.3 Explain the principle technologies and their uses when accessing information from databases.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 6: Foundations of Business Intelligence: Databases and Information Management

Unit Lesson
Databases and Management
What do you think is an organization’s most important asset? Some people might argue that employees are the most important asset for any organization, while others would argue that an organization cannot function without its data. Imagine that an organization loses every server and database in its data centers. How would the business know which customers have ordered which products? How would they know what they currently have stocked in their warehouses? How would they know how much they paid for that product or how much they should charge for it going forward? How could they operate without any historical records at all? It would be like starting over as a completely new business, would it not?
Organizations have to be very protective of their data. As an additional point of complexity, organizations have to follow Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) laws, which require data to have integrity at a high level. This basically means that no one can touch a company’s data unless they have an expressed need for it and authorization to do so.
An organization’s data cannot have redundancy. Also, it must be consistent and have integrity. Integrity means that you are ensuring the quality of the data in your database. Integrity deals with the accuracy and reliability of the data. All of this is made possible by relational databases and database management systems (DBMS). Relational databases are designed to store data in a manner that will reduce redundancy and inconsistency. The word reduce is used here because the database engineer, or developer, has to make use of the rules and tools. Otherwise, there could be issues with bad data.
Consider the database as the foundation for business intelligence, data warehousing, and data mining. A DBMS includes the capabilities for organizing, managing, and accessing the data housed in the database (Laudon & Laudon, 2016). Information technology (IT) personnel can use queries and reports for accessing and manipulating that data. The design of the database should be such that it is normalized in order to enforce referential integrity. Data models should be created with relationships between columns in mind.
So, how is database data used for decision making? You may have had a database course before, or you may have had to pull data from a database at work. Your response may be just to query the data. However, doing that would just give you some data. How do you get the right data?
Let us assume you are trying to make decisions about what items to discount in one of your hundred company gas/markets. It would not be too hard to query the sales data from that store for the past hour. You might get a hundred transactions. What can you do with that information? What if you pull the information for the last week or month? You could get thousands to millions of rows of data. At what point do you have too much data to deal with in your database?
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MBA 5401, Management Information Systems 1
UNIT IV STUDY GUIDE
Databases, Information Management, and Business Intelligence
Data like this can be summarized as determining your sale of candy bars and UthNaItTyoxuSsTeUllDaYn GavUeIrDaEge of one hundred candy bars per day. But, how does that help you to make a decision about discounting candy bars?
What you need is a way to store the magnitudes of data in such a way that it is beneficial to the business.
What exactly is business intelligence? Now, go back to our previous example. Not only do you have one store to collect thousands of rows, but you have one hundred stores. There are millions of rows of records that are processed through your operational databases in a given month. You also want to collect data about pricing changes from the vendors and information about marketing trends. Then, you might want to collect information from external sources like your competitor data or demographic data.
How would you store this information? Well, you will store it in a data warehouse. Data warehouses are part of your business intelligence infrastructure. It is through this infrastructure that you can use tools like analytics and data mining to look for patterns in your data that you cannot see by just looking at query or report results.
The first analytical method is online analytical processing (OLAP), which allows the user to view data in different ways using different dimensions. This is commonly referred to as using a data cube. How could this be used for our example? Well, we could pull information on the best-selling candy bar, the average price, the day of the week that we sell the most, and the month of the year. Would that get us closer to knowing what kind of discount offers to put in our stores? Yes, but not close enough.
The next common analytical method is data mining. Data mining is more complex and looks for hidden patterns and relationships. Again, let’s apply this to our previous example. The results of our data mining could show us the best-selling candy bar, the average price, the day of the week, and the month that we sell the most candy bars. It may also tell us that the majority of the time that people buy candy bars is when they also buy a soda or coffee. Aha! Now, what can our marketing department do with that information? They can bundle products together and advertise them in the store windows and at the gas pumps: “Buy a soda and candy bar and get 50 cents off.”
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This is a simple example. Just imagine the rows of data that retailers like Amazon.com have stored in databases and data warehouses! Now, there are Web mining tools that help organizations understand customer’s Internet patterns, including which websites they frequent, what they buy, what they do not buy, and how long they spent on the websites. All of this is large data, and it is valuable data.
Organizations can make big decisions based on this data. They pay a huge amount of money to store and analyze the data that is collected. As an IT professional, it is your job to protect that data and to help ensure data quality and integrity. There are several concepts, other than the ones previously mentioned, that are also important to this field. The most important involve the need for organizations to set effective information policies and to have adequate data governance across the enterprise. We will cover more on these topics in a future lesson.
Reference
Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (2016). Management information systems: Managing the digital firm [VitalSource Bookshelf version] (14th ed.). Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780133898309/
Suggested Reading
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The following article presents practical information from top financial executives regarding how they use business intelligence in support of corporate strategies. You are highly encouraged to view this article.
In order to access the resource below, you must first log into the myCSU Student Portal and access the Business Source Ultimate database within the CSU Online Library.
Morio, J. (2014). Linking business intelligence to strategy. Financial Executive, 30(4), 66-69.
MBA 5401, Management Information Systems 2
Title
Learning Activities (Nongraded)
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UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Complete the Management Decision Problem 6-8 on p. 247 in your textbook. Create a one page summary document addressing the question at the end of the problem. In addition to the textbook, you may use external sources or select sources from the CSU Online library. Be sure to reference and cite all sources used with proper APA formatting.
As this is a nongraded activity, this work cannot be uploaded to Blackboard. If you would like your professor’s feedback on your work, send this document to them in an email with a note that you would like to receive feedback on your non-graded activity.
MBA 5401, Management Information Systems 3

Question 5: Finance

For this assignment, you will take the role of a business owner. As the business owner, you will create a case study that includes two parts.
Part I
Describe the type of business you own.
What products and/or services does the business offer?
How long has the business existed?
What kind of community does the business serve?
Part II
You are in an evaluation (or reevaluation) of your business’s needs. You see that you will need to reach out to the following financial institutions to meet their needs: insurance companies, pension funds, and finance companies. Define what each of these financial institutions will offer your business.
What are the major differences between the three financial institutions?
How could each one meet a need in your business? What financial institutions do you finally settle on? What services or products will you use?
Your responses should be submitted in one document and follow APA formatting.
You should have a minimum of three pages of content, one title page, and one reference page for this assignment. Be sure to include two scholarly sources in addition to your textbook.

Health IT Breaking News Assignment

The ground underneath you in health care is changing hourly. As a manager, if you are not tapped into these changes, you will fall behind and not know of a new statute, regulation, or equipment. It is hard to do research every day, so why not have the information come to you?

For this assignment, you will review a minimum of five articles related to health IT and provide a summary of each. Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds bring news to you.

You will start by reviewing RSS feeds and scanning for relevant articles. Scan the articles daily for IT news related to electronic health records, HIPAA violations and medical record case reviews, rule changes, ethics, e-prescribing, documentation, billing, security, health IT safety, and many other concepts.

Here are some potential RSS feed addresses to sign up for, but there are many others you may use:

http://www.healthcareitnews.com/rss
http://www.modernhealthcare.com/section/RSS
https://www.healthitoutcomes.com/doc/rss-0001
http://managedhealthcareexecutive.modernmedicine.com/managed-healthcare-executive/content/rss-feeds
https://www.healthit.gov/buzz-blog/ (from Office of National Coordinator)

For this assignment, you will do the following:

Provide a cover page
Number your articles, and start with a reference in standard format to the article. Provide complete information, not just the URL.
Under each reference, provide a complete summary of the article. Do NOT cut and paste any of the article as part of your submission. ALL work must be your own writing.
Provide analysis. What does the article mean? How will this change things? In what way is this breaking news? Provide in-depth analysis. Superficial one-liner comments will not receive credit.
Double space your content

It is expected that you will have a minimum of two complete pages of content. If you do not, then you have chosen insignificant articles, or not provided meaningful analysis.
Question 7: Biology

postulate a reason why so many aliphatic amino acids are “essential”

Question 8: Accounting

Prepare a process documentation that is prepared in a professional manner because it will be the desktop guide used by others.

Question 9: Business

What problem does your business solve?
How does your business generate income?
Which parts of your business are not profitable?
Question 10: Computer Science

I need 3-page paper on
Implementing Enterprise Risk Management (ERM), write a research paper on how ERM is leveraged to minimize risk and create opportunity in your chosen industry. Be sure to provide specific examples.

You can Pick IT industry and do like

1. ERM and IT industry
2.How ERM leverage risk in IT
3.How ERM create opportunity in IT

Question 11: Business

How does the information technology development for video-based businesses differ from traditional businesses?

Question 12: Health Care

Management Plan Assignment

Setting up an EHR or comprehensive patient informatics system is not a one-time event. A person or a team of individuals must oversee getting new employees up to speed, maintain competence of existing employees, and make needed continuous changes to the system. It is a very dynamic process.

In this assignment, you are the head of a team implementing a new EHR system and must address the following areas. Use each one of the below items as a header, and describe how you would resolve issues in each area.

The Role of the Manager Implementing a New System. In this section of the paper, address the following issues related to implementing a new EHR system (10 points):

How the software selection process works
What contract negotiations should involve and include
What will be the role of the IT manager in the department
What role will a Strategic Planner take in the process
How will the system be financed?

Ongoing Maintenance and Upgrades to System. In this section of the paper you address the following issues that occur after the EHR system is up and running (10 points):
How will needed changes come about after the new system is up and running?
What will upgrades and new modules be added to the system?
How does the facility handle suggestions by staff that use the system?
How does the facility train new employees and provide ongoing training program for existing staff?

Use quality peer reviewed literature for each section to support each section and in-text citations. Write in third person only. It is expected this will be a minimum two pages. Have a complete reference page at the end (not just pasted URLs

Question 13: Health Care

Descriptive Analysis Assignment

Many useful sources of statistical data are available in the public domain on the internet. The United States Center for Disease Control, for example, provides online access to their WONDER (Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research) databases of public health data.

For this assignment, you will be using the ad-hoc query and reporting tools provided on this site to summarize cancer mortality rates. Choose a state, and then collect and present information that answers the following questions:
Did cancer deaths in your chosen state increase or decrease from year to year between 1999 and 2005?
How do the 2005 cancer deaths in your chosen state compare to 2005 cancer deaths in four other U.S. states? (You may choose any four states you want for the comparison.)?
How do the 2005 cancer deaths in that state break down according to race?

You can use any state you wish, just use the same state throughout.

To answer each question:

Use the “Request Form” to specify suitable query criteria to get a result set that best answers the question.
Supply a title that accurately describes the data you’re requesting. Submit the query.
Browse the result set and capture screen shots of the:
Result set, and paste it into the assignment document you will be submitting.
Query criteria (at the bottom of the results page) and paste it into the document
Generate a map or a chart to visually present your results. You can select whatever type of chart (e.g. bar chart, pie chart, line chart, map, etc.) you think most clearly presents the data.
Capture a screen shot of the chart and paste it into the assignment document you will be submitting

Watch the video instructions for using the WONDER database. If you need help capturing screenshots, you can get instructions for Windows and Macintosh. You MUST submit ALL of the screenshots described (3 screenshots per question, 9 total) to get credit for each question.

Step One: Select one of the following films to view based on the short descriptions provided below:
French-Language Films:
1. Intouchables (France, directed by Olivier Nakache and Eric Toledo, released 2011): Story of a young black Frenchman who is hired to take care of a wealthy quadriplegic.
2. Amelie (France, directed by Jean-Pierre Jennet, released 2001): Story of a naive girl in Paris who has her own way of helping those around her.
3. L’auberge espagnole (France, directed by Cedric Klapisch, released 2002): Story of a group of European exchange students who shared an apartment in Barcelona, Spain.
German-language Films:
1. The Lives of Others (Germany, directed by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck, released 2006 ): Set in East Germany, it portrays the surveillance of a writer by the Stasi (state secret police).
2. The Edukators (Germany, directed by Hans Weingarten, released 2004): Set in reunified Germany in the early twenty-first century, it portrays some young people who develop a new form of protest against what they consider to be the evils of capitalism.
3. Run Lola Run (Germany, directed by Tom Tywer, released 1998)
Spanish-language Films:
1. The Skin I Live In (Spain, directed by Pedro Almodovar, released 2011): A thriller about a doctor who holds an apparently beautiful woman captive.
2. The Motorcycle Diaries (Argentina, directed by Brazilian director Walter Salles, released 2004): Narrates the life of the young Che Guevara who sets out on a road trip to discover the people of South America.
3. Amores Perros (Mexico, directed by Alejandro G. Inarritu, released 2000). A car accident in Mexico City connects the lives of three strangers who are struggling with the reality of daily life.

Step Two: After viewing the film, select a theme/topic addressed in the film that you would like to explore.
Step Three: Write a response to the film’s treatment of the theme or topic that you have selected. This should be in paragraph form, 2-3 pages. Refer to specific scenes, dialog, or images in the film that address your topic. Include questions that you have that you would like to explore further. Conclude your analysis with a restatement of the most important question that you would like to answer regarding the meaning of the film.
Step Four: Provide a tentative bibliography, USING ONLY SOURCES FROM THE MLA BIBLIOGRAPHY. Try to select the sources that match your topic most closely. Include at least 4 sources and utilize the MLA bibliography format.
Step Five:
1. Choose one secondary source from your bibliography to read, preferably an article directly related to the film you are exploring. Read the article carefully and summarize its argument in approximately one page (250-350 words).
2. State how the direction of your research project has changed since your first draft based on the secondary source you read. If you do not see any significant changes in your direction based on the secondary source, state why.

Step 6: Submit all of the above as a Word Document in the TurnItIn Assignment by no later than NOON EST on August 9th.
MAKE SURE YOU KEEP A COPY/FILE OF DRAFT ONE, SINCE DRAFT TWO WILL INVOLVE ADDING ON TO WHAT YOU HAVE ALREADY DONE IN DRAFT ONE.

You need to include an introduction, primary discussion, and summary. Include graphs, tables, and images, as necessary, to improve the clarity of your discussion. Your project needs to be both correct and well written. Communication remains a critical component of our modern, technological society. A few notes about format: you MUST use MS Word for your project and use Equation Editor for all mathematical symbols, e.g. 𝑧(𝑡) = sin(𝑡) + 1 ln(𝑡) . Problem 1: Consider the following Initial Value Problem (IVP) where 𝑦 is the dependent variable and 𝑡 is the independent variable: 𝑦 ′ = sin(𝑡) ∗ (1 − 𝑦) with 𝑦(0) = 𝑦0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0 Note: the analytic solution for this IVP is: 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 + (𝑦0 − 1)𝑒 cos(𝑡)−1
Part 1A:
Approximate the solution to the IVP using Euler’s method with the following conditions: Initial condition 𝑦0 = − 1 2 ; time step ℎ = 1 16 ; and time interval 𝑡 ∈ [0,20] + Derive the recursive formula for Euler’s method applied to this IVP + Plot the Euler’s method approximation + Plot the absolute error between the approximation and the exact solution using a semi-log plot
Part 1B:
Approximate the solution to the IVP using the Improved Euler’s method with the following conditions: Initial condition 𝑦0 = − 1 2 ; time step ℎ = 1 16 ; and time interval 𝑡 ∈ [0,20] + Derive the recursive formula for the Improved Euler’s method applied to this IVP + Plot the Improved Euler’s method approximation + Plot the absolute error between the approximation and the exact solution using a semilog plot
Part 1C:
Approximate the solution to the IVP using the RK4 method with the following conditions: Initial condition 𝑦0 = − 1 2 ; time step ℎ = 1 16 ; and time interval 𝑡 ∈ [0,20] + Plot the RK4 method approximation + Plot the absolute error between the approximation and the exact solution using a semilog plot
Problem 2: Consider the following Initial Value Problem (IVP) where 𝑦(𝑡) is the dependent function:
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1.14 cos(𝑒 𝑡/2 ) with 𝑦(0) = 𝑦0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0

Part 2A:
Approximate the solution to the IVP using the Improved Euler’s method with the following conditions: Initial condition 𝑦0 = 1; time steps ℎ = 1 8 , 1 16 , 1 32 , 1 64 ; and time interval 𝑡 ∈ [0,20]
Plot the Improved Euler’s method approximation for all 4 time steps
Discuss the results of these approximations
Part 2B:
Approximate the solution to the IVP using the RK4 method with the following conditions:
Initial condition 𝑦0 = 1;
time steps ℎ = 1 8 , 1 16 , 1 32 , 1 64 ; and time interval 𝑡 ∈ [0,20]
Plot the RK4 approximation for all 4 time steps
Discuss the results of these approximations
Question 16: Business

Marketers rely heavily on demographics when purchasing media. IMC Perspective 10-1 (p. 350-351) talks about additional factors that may be important. Discuss some of these factors and why they might impact media usage. Explain and justify your viewpoints. (10 points)

Question 17: Biology

What is disease rating?

Question 18: Engineering

How to find the proportional limit of a reloaded bar

A 6.881-g sample containing magnesium chloride and sodium chloride was dissolved in sufficient water to give 500 mL of solution. Analysis for the chloride content of a 50.0-mL aliquot resulted in the formation of 0.5923 g of AgCl. The magnesium in a second 50.0-mL aliquot was precipitated as MgNH⁴PO⁴; on ignition, 0.1796 g of Mg²P²O⁷ was found. Calculate the % of MgCl²•6H²O and of NaCl on the sample.

Instruction
For this Signature Assignment, develop and present a proposal for your intended research using a quantitative design. While the most important elements in any proposal are the fundamentals of the problem, purpose, and research questions, the bulk of the assignment will be the methodology. You will want to organize this by subheadings. The actual headings and information that needs to be included in part depend on the method used to collect the data. In studies involving the collection of primary data, you want to be sure to include the details of your sampling plan, measurement of variables, the actual data collection procedure, plan of analysis, and justification for your decisions. Be sure to include the following information in your proposal: •Introduction •Statement of the Problem •Purpose Statement •Research Questions •Hypotheses: Null and Alternative for each research question •Methodology ◦Research Design: Specific quantitative method to be used and rationale (Ex. experiment, survey, etc.) ◦Operationalization of Variable: Specification of the concepts to be measured, the operationalization of the variable(s) to be used to measure the concepts, the question(s)/scale(s) to be used and the resulting level of measurement. ◦Sample design: Specification of the population, method, sample size, specific procedures, and justification. ◦Data collection procedure: Explanation of how the data will be collected. ◦Intended data analysis: How will you analyze the data to test the hypotheses and provide answers to the research questions, including descriptive and inferential statistics? Provide your rationale. •Limitations: Any recognized limitations of the proposed study. •References In this assignment, you are expected to incorporate all previous instructor feedback. Your prospectus must be in APA format and be of the quality expected of doctoral-level work. All research elements must be in alignment and reflect a cohesive and comprehensive research study. Length: Your paper should be between 13 -15 pages, not including title and reference page. References: Include a minimum of ten (10) scholarly sources. Your presentation should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards.

Instruction
Instructions This assignment consists of three parts: (1) Recommend and justify a method of survey administration to be used to meet the quantitative research objectives listed below; (2) develop a list of questions to be used on a questionnaire to meet the objectives listed; (3) Explain the method of survey administration you would use if a survey was conducted in your intended research. a.To determine the effectiveness of advertising of a specific product during the Super Bowl on increasing consumer awareness of the product. b.To determine the level of satisfaction of patients who are admitted to a hospital during the past 6 months. c.To determine if there is a relationship between the decision to pursue a career in law enforcement and gender. d.To determine IT professional’s perceptions of the best preparation for an IT career. Length: Your paper should be between 7-9 pages, not including title and reference page. References: Include a minimum of five (5) scholarly sources. Your presentation should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards

Instruction
Instructions In this assignment, you are being given a number of constructs. Conduct scholarly research that has been published within the past five years that measures each on these. Based on this, provide a conceptual and at least one operational definition of each construct listed below. Based on the operational definitions, provide a measurement for the variable and explain the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) that is generated. Once this is completed, provide a conceptual and operational definition of two constructs you will be measuring in your intended dissertation research. Rather than present a traditional paper, organize the document by the following construct. a.Attitude toward new technology b.Customer satisfaction c.Self-concept d.Leadership style e.Organizational commitment f.Constructs you intend to measure Length: Your paper should be between 6-7 pages, not including title and reference page. References: Include a minimum of eight (8) scholarly sources. Your presentation should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards

COMM 480: Seminar: International Advertising (Summer 2019)
Research Proposal
You will work throughout the semester to create a research proposal, in which you propose what you are going to do to test your hypotheses. The purpose of this assignment is to give you the opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of social-scientific research. You are NOT going to collect data or analyze data, nor are you going to present results from your study. This paper can build from the research question and articles cited in the annotated bibliography OR you can generate a new research question and annotate relevant articles. The project consists of two parts: a research proposal paper and a research presentation.
Research paper (100 pts.):
Although I do not like to provide a definitive answer about how many pages you will have to write to complete this assignment (because quantity and quality are not inherently related and because the goal of any good paper is to make a compelling, well written argument [regardless of length]), I understand that providing a general estimation of the length of a typical research paper is helpful. Therefore, you can expect to turn in a final product that is somewhere between 12 and 15 pages long (including a title page, abstract, introduction, literature review, methods and discussion, and references) (double-spaced pages, in Times Roman 12 font size, 1 inch margins on all sides). Papers not meeting these formatting requirements will be sent back for revisions. The late submission will result in a 10% deduction per day.
Title page: This is a separate page that includes the title of your proposal (e.g., Identifying global and culture-specific dimensions of humor in advertising: A cross-cultural analysis) and your own name, the course number, and school affiliation.

Abstract: This section should be in a separate page that summarizes the purpose of your study, theories and hypotheses, proposed method, and discussion.
Introduction: In this section, you should introduce your study, and state the significance and the purpose of your study.
Literature review: In this section, you are going to review the existing research on your topic, explain theories adopted for your study, define the variables in your study, provide the rationale behind the hypothesized relationships between variables, and suggest the hypotheses and/or research questions to be addressed.
Method: This section continues from Literature Review. In this section, you are going to state the proposed method (e.g., experiment, survey, content analysis) to test your hypotheses and/or research questions. You need to be specific about research sample (i.e., who will be in the study or what will be analyzed in the study), measures (i.e., what variables will be measured), and procedures of your study (i.e., what will be prepared prior to the study and what will happen in the study).

COMM 480: Seminar: International Advertising (Summer 2019)
Discussion: This section should address what your expected results of research mean in relation to the theoretical body of knowledge on the topic and your profession, and for communication professionals in the field being examined. In other words, what are the study’s theoretical and practical implications? It may be one of the most important sections because it answers the “So what?” question. Also, in this section, you should suggest directions for future research investigations.
References: References should be placed in separate pages following the “Discussion” section. Includes a minimum of seven references of scholarly journals or books. All intext citations must appear in the reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference
list must be cited in your text.
Please consult the sample APA papers I posted on Blackboard and the Purdue site (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/) for formatting questions. In
addition, to help you better understand what a research proposal is, I have post a
sample research proposal, as well as completed research papers, on Blackboard, which may provide you with some ideas as to what a research proposal is.
Research presentation (50 pts.): You will make a presentation of your paper at the end of the semester. Prepare for presentation slides that can be taken up to 15 minutes. Following your presentation, you will provide discussion questions. NO LATE PRESENTATION IS ACCEPTED WITHOUT A PROOF OF OFFICIAL EXCUSE.

Instruction
Produce a report that details Research and recommend strategies the company can take to reduce power consumption An energy audit on two options of a PC, laser printer and server package estimating the CO 2 emissions for these devices in a year and provide a comparison report summarising potential energy savings and financial costs A policy for procurement of equipment from ‘Green Suppliers’, including a disposal plan Project implementation plan highlighting at what stages you will introduce short and long term solutions that will save power immediately and long term List these additions in priority order and approximate the cost of each change

Sustainability Integration: ICT Planning and Design
This assessment is designed to be completed after you have completed your design project and proposal. Ensure you have completed your design project and have had it assessed by your teacher and returned.
Ensure you have completed the Sustainability training before you attempt this assignment
Assignment
You have just designed a solution for an organisation. A late change request has come through from the CEO and she would like some additions to the proposal. She has been reading a lot about how ICT systems are having a large impact on the carbon footprint of business.
Revisit your design, using your new Green IT skills and integrate sustainability elements to it. These elements must include, but are not limited to the following:
Research and recommend strategies the company can take to reduce power consumption
An energy audit on two options of a PC, laser printer and server package estimating the CO 2 emissions for these devices in a year and provide a comparison report summarising potential
energy savings and financial costs
A policy for procurement of equipment from ‘Green Suppliers’, including a disposal plan
Project implementation plan highlighting at what stages you will introduce short and long term
solutions that will save power immediately and long term
List these additions in a priority order and approximate the cost of each change
To complete this assignment you will need access to the internet. Here are some useful links:
http://www.eu-energystar.org/en/en_008.shtml http://www.greenit.org.au/ http://2virtualize.com/index_files/greendatacenter.htm http://42u.com/
http://sustainabledirections.com.au/
Feel free to contact your teacher if you require any assistance.
Submission
Upload your completed documents on the Upskilled Student Portal.

Create a chart with rows and columns to establish the following requirements of discrimination under the law in the following areas at the top:

Title VII Gender Discrimination in Employment Practices
Sexual Harassment Based on Hostile Work Environment
Quid-Pro-Quo Sexual Harassment
Sexual Orientation in the Workplace

Along the left side of the chart, create the following rows:

Requirements to Prove Under the Law
Ways Employers can Minimize Liability
Recent Case Example

Complete the chart for each section.

Explain in 350 to 525 words the requirements of each type of potential gender discrimination.

Explain in 350 to 525 words the specific ways employers can minimize liability for each type of gender discrimination.

Research and include a relevant case to illustrate each type of gender discrimination.

Format your citations and references consistent with APA guidelines.

week 3 discussion
Respond to the following in a minimum of 175 words:
How does one recognize sexual harassment?
Discuss the different types of sexual harassment?
what is required to support a case of sexual harassment in that situation?

Ethical Issue Analysis

Instruction

Instructions are attached

Purpose: In this project, you will assess how two start up companies have come under scrutiny for their actions in operating in today’s business environment. How these companies are operating are pushing the limits or have exceeded the limits of what is considered ethical and legal. In completing this project you will have the opportunity to research the two companies, identify stakeholders influenced by the organization’s decisions and develop and evaluate alternatives, recommend solutions to ensure appropriate business practices and accountability occur

Outcomes met by completing this project:

identify ethical issues that arise in domestic and global business environments using an understanding of ethical concepts and of legal and business principles
develop and evaluate alternatives to, and recommend solutions for, ethical dilemmas, taking into account ethical and legal requirements and the essential mission of the business enterprise
effectively communicate to internal and external business stakeholders the complexities of ethical issues, suggesting and analyzing various solutions in order to ensure appropriate business practices and accountability

Instructions

Use the following steps to complete the project. You will demonstrate an understanding of ethical concepts and of legal business principles and are required to use the course material to support the ideas and conclusions presented.

Step 1: Course Material and Research

You are required to research the two companies to provide a company overview, to identify identify the issues and to identify stakeholders. You will be using the course to address the questions and support the ideas, reasoning and conclusions made. Course material use goes beyond defining terms but is used to explain the ‘why and how’ of a situation. Using one or two in-text citations from the course material and then relying on Internet source material will not earn many points on the project. A variety of source material is expected and what is presented must be relevant and applicable to the topic being discussed. Avoid merely making statements but close the loop of the discussion by explaining how something happens or why something happens, which focuses on importance and impact. In closing the loop, you will demonstrate the ability to think clearly and rationally showing an understanding of the logical connections between the ideas presented in a case scenario, the course material and the question(s) being asked.

1.      PayPal opted to deviate from industry standards and build their own custom technology that would better suit their needs. When is it a good idea for companies to take this alternative? What issues factor into that decision? Provide a discussion and some examples.
2.      Although the new system has been quite successful, Pay-Pal has chosen not to license this technology to others, forgoing a potentially important revenue stream given the lack of good solutions to this problem. Why do you think PayPal chose not to sell this technology? Do you really think this can be made into a strategic advantage over their competitors? How easy would it be for their competitors to imitate this accomplishment?
3.      One of the challenges that PayPal faces now that they have managed to overcome the polylingual obstacle is finding the best way to put this functionality in the hands of the business, so that they do not have to go through IT each time. How do you balance this need for responsiveness and flexibility versus IT’s need to keep some degree of control to make sure everything keeps working with everything else? Provide some recommendations to managers who find themselves in this situation.

Most people perceive international public administration to be a set of state structures, institutions, and processes. Opponents of globalization argue that it weakens states, making it difficult for them to sustain social welfare and environmental policies, and create fiscal redistributive initiatives.
According to James Bovard, a libertarian author who focuses on writing about government, proponents and businesses seeking to expand abroad claim there is little or no evidence of national governments’ decline. Congress, along with many policy strategists, seems to think that whatever the effects of globalization on governments, they are likely to be beneficial for long-term economic growth (Bovard, 1987).
Analyze the claims laid out in this controversy, and try to argue the strongest case you can in favor of the view(s) you find most convincing. In doing so, be sure to seriously consider the case that your opponents might make against your position, and why you would reject it. Use the Internet and/or Strayer databases to research evidence that supports your opinion. Determine your point of view on the issue, and support your position with information from at least three reliable, relevant, peer-reviewed references.
Create a PowerPoint presentation that covers the following:
Provide a brief description of the issue. Present evidence that supports both sides of the argument. In the Notes section of each information slide, you must write a narrative of what you would say if presenting in person. Provide at least three reliable, relevant, peer-reviewed references.
Note: Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Your presentation should include a minimum total of 12 slides, with 10 information slides.
Format your assignment according to the following formatting requirements:
Typed, double-spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with 1-inch margins on all sides. Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page is not included in the required page length.
Include a reference page. Citations and references must follow the APA format. The reference page is not included in the required page length.

South University NSG6435 Week 4 Quiz / South University NSG 6435 Week 4 Quiz

NSG6435: Week 4 Quiz

Question 1                          1 / 1 point
A school-age client presents to the clinic to establish care. The child has autism, facial dysmorphia, and growth retardation. The provider suspects the child has what condition?
A.            Down Syndrome
B.            Fetal alcohol syndrome
C.            Prader- Willi syndrome
D.            Turner syndrome
Autism, facial dysmorphia, and growth retardation are differential diagnoses of fetal alcohol syndrome.

Question 2                          1 / 1 point
A 8-year-old client was recently discharged from the hospital following an episode of meningitis. The client presented to the clinic for a follow-up appointment post discharge. The provider understands that the client’s is at increased risk for which complication(s)? (check all that apply)
A.            Hearing Impairment
B.            Paralysis
C.            Loss of Speech
D.            Infertility

Question 3                          1 / 1 point
A client with history of bilateral tympanostomy tube insertion presents to the clinic c/o otorrhea. The provider confirms the complaint. What is the best treatment for this condition?
A.            Combination antibiotic and corticosteroid otic drops
B.            Anaglesics and watchful waiting
C.            Oral antibiotics and antifungal cream
D.            Corticosteroid otic drops

Question 4                          1 / 1 point
The gold standard in diagnosing acute otitis media is:
A.            Immobile ™
B.            Pearly gray TM
C.            Flat TM
D.            Perforated TM
The diagnosis of acute otitis media is based on presence of one or several of the following: bulging TM, decreased translucency of TM, absent or decreased mobility of the TM, air-fluid level behind the TM and otorrhea

Question 5                          1 / 1 point
A provider is caring for a new client whose had recurrent episodes of and failed treatment for acute otitis media. What is the next best intervention?
A.            Refer to audiologist
B.            Refer to an otolaryngology
C.            Prescribe a broad spectrum antibiotic for 30 days
D.            Prescribe an anti- inflammatory

Question 6                          1 / 1 point
A 16 year-old-client presents to your clinic c/o sore throat and 101°F temperature. The provider learns that the client had a sore throat approximately 1 week ago. On exam, client is positive for cervical lymphadenopathy, enlarged left tonsil, edematous pharynx and uvula displacement. What condition does this client most likely have?
A.            Acute uvulitis
B.            Infectious mononucleosis
C.            Mumps
D.            Peritonsillar abscess

Question 7                          1 / 1 point
A 5-year-old client presents to the clinic for an annual physical. While performing the physical exam, the provider attempts to examine the client’s ears. What does the provider do?
A.            Gently pull outer ear down and back **
B.            Gently pull outer ear up and back
C.            Gently pull outer ear down
D.            Gently pull outer ear back
To correctly examine the ear of a child older than 12 months gently pull outer ear down and back

Question 8                          1 / 1 point
What are the most common causes of bacterial pneumonia in neonates (select all that apply)?
A.            Staphylococcus Aureus
B.            Group B Streptococcus **
C.            Listeria Monocytogenes
D.            E. Coli **
The most common organisms responsible for bacterial pneumonia in neonates are still group B streptococcus and Escherichia coli. The next most common causes are coagulase negative Staph and Listeria in the early neonatal period. After four days of age, the differential needs to be expanded to include S. aureus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Candida, Acinetobacter, and anaerobes.
Question 9                          1 / 1 point
An ill appearing 3-month-old-infant is presented to your clinic. The parent reports that their child has a fever, persistent cough, rhinorrhea, wheezing, hypoxemia, and anorexia for 4 days. After the provider’s exam and work-up, the child is diagnosed with Bronchiolitis. What is the most likely treatment option for this infant?
A.            Refer patient for hospitalization
B.            Refer patient for Pulmonologist
C.            Refer patient for Bronchoscopy
D.            Refer patient for Chest X- ray

Bronchiolitis is the term used for an infant seen with wheezing for the very first time and is the leading cause of hospitalizations for infants. It presents with cough, fever, coryza, tachypnea, expiratory wheezing, air trapping, and inspiratory crackles. In mild cases, symptoms can last for 1 to 3 days. In severe cases, cyanosis, air hunger, retractions, and nasal flaring with symptoms of severe respiratory distress within a few hours may be seen. Apnea can occur and may require mechanical ventilation.

Question 10                        1 / 1 point
An ill-appearing child is presented to your clinic with a fever, sore throat, restless behavior, dysphagia, drooling, and inspiratory distress without stridor. The child tests positive for Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). What is the most likely diagnosis?
A.            Tonsillitis
B.            Epiglottitis **
C.            Laryngotracheobronchitis
D.            Retropharyngeal abscess

Write a four to six (4) page paper in which you:Give your opinion on the Mc Donalds greatest strengths and most significant weaknesses. Choose either a strategy OR tactic the corporation should select to take maximum advantage of its strengths, and the strategy OR tactic the corporation should select to fix its most significant weakness. Justify your choices.Determine the company’s tangible and intangible resources, core capabilities, and core competencies.Choose the two (2) segments of the general environment that would rank highest in their influence on the corporation you chose. Assess how these segments affect the corporation you chose and the industry in which it operates.Choose two (2) forces of competition that you estimate are the most significant for the corporation you chose. Evaluate how well the company has addressed these) forces in the recent past, going back no further than five (5) fiscal years.With the same two (2) forces in mind, predict what the company might do to improve its ability to address these forces in the near future.Identify what you consider to be the greatest external threat to this corporation. Discuss how the corporation should address this threat. Justify your explanation.Identify what you consider to be the greatest opportunity presented to the corporation, and discuss how the corporation should take advantage of this opportunity. Justify your explanationUse at least three (3) quality references.

Week 6 Assignment 2
Student Full Name
BUS499 Business Administration Capstone
Due Week 6 and worth 125 points
Using the corporation you chose from Assignment 1, examine its industry. Research the company on its own website, the public filings on the Securities and Exchange Commission EDGAR database (http://www.sec.gov/edgar.shtml), in the University’s online databases, and any other credible sources you can find. The annual report will often provide insights that can help address some of these questions.
Read chapters 1 -3 in the course textbook and complete the LEARN E-Activities for Weeks 1-3 as they set the foundation to this assignment. Be sure to cite your sources!
Begin your paper on Page 2 below and write a minimum of four (4) pages. The minimum page count does not include the Title or Source pages.
Week 6 Assignment 2
Write your introduction here. Include one (1) paragraph (not more than 6 lines of text) that explains what your paper will discuss. Much of your introduction may be taken from the assignment instructions (in your own words). Read all assignment resources to understand what should be included in your paper. Be sure to review the assignment instructions in Blackboard, the grading rubric, and the recorded writing workshop to understand the requirements. Do not exceed 6 lines of text in this introduction. There should be no direct quotes in this section.
General Environment
Choose the two (2) segments of the general environment that would rank highest in their influence on the corporation you chose. Assess how these segments affect the corporation you chose and the industry in which it operates. Hint: see table 2.1. Remember that to assess a concept, you will weigh all aspects to judge the importance or relevance of that concept. Do not simply define the segments.
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Your assessment should demonstrate that you have read, understand, and can apply the selected segments of the general environment concepts covered in the textbook and course resources. Your writing here should thoroughly assess how the selected segments influence your corporation. Do not write about the general environment in general terms. Your assessment should be directly related to your selected corporation. Do not assess all the segments—only assess the two (2) segments that rank highest in influencing your corporation. A thorough assessment is defined as providing a complete response that is not superficial or partial regarding every detail of the concepts as described in the course. You will need to apply and incorporate key concepts from the course material to your assessment. Do not Google “segments of the general environment” or provide high-level summaries. You must display, in specific detail, an understanding based on what is studied in this course and an ability to apply the concepts in a real-world assessment of a corporation. Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook. Review the Week 2 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.

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Five Forces of Competition
In this section you will consider the five (5) forces of competition and choose the two (2) that you estimate are the most significant for the corporation you chose. Hint: see figure 2.2 in the textbook. You will then, evaluate how well the company has addressed these two (2) forces in the recent past.
Item 1
Choose one (1) of the five (5) forces of competition that you estimate is the most significant for the corporation you chose. Provide a thorough assessment of why you think selected force is significant to your corporation. A thorough assessment is defined as providing a complete response that is not superficial or partial regarding every detail of the concept as described in the course. Do not Google “five forces of competition” or simply provide a definition. You will need to apply and incorporate key concepts from the course material in your evaluation. Specifically address the applicable key concepts from the textbook and course material for the selected force. You will need to read the chapters and listen to the lectures to understand the key concepts for each force. Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook and review the Week 2 Learn video Lecture for supporting content. Hint: the five (5) forces of competition is the same as “Porters 5 Forces of Competition”. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Item 2
Choose another one (1) of the five (5) forces of competition that you estimate is the most significant for the corporation you chose. This should not be the same force assessed in Item 1 above. Provide a thorough assessment of why you think the selected force is significant to your corporation. A thorough assessment is defined as providing a complete response that is not superficial or partial regarding every detail of the concept as described in the course. Do not Google “five forces of competition” or simply provide a definition. You will need to apply and incorporate key concepts from the course material in your assessment. Specifically address the applicable key concepts from the textbook and course material for the selected force. You will need to read the chapters and listen to the lectures to understand the key concepts for each force. Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook and review the Week 2 Learn video Lecture for supporting content. Hint: the five (5) forces of competition is the same as “Porters 5 Forces of Competition”. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Evaluation
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Evaluate how well the company has addressed these two (2) forces in the recent past. This will require some research. Remember that to evaluate a concept, you will break down all components to determine or analyze facts, value, or views. Your evaluation should demonstrate that you have read, understand, and can apply the concepts covered in the textbook and course resources. Do not write about the selected forces in general terms. Your evaluation should be directly related to your selected corporation and include a thorough evaluation of how the company has addressed the forces recently. You must display an understanding based on what is studied in this course and an ability to apply the concepts in a real-world evaluation of a corporation. Your writing here should provide a thorough evaluation of your chosen corporation. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Future Improvements
With the same two (2) forces assessed and evaluated in the sections above, predict what the company might do to improve its ability to address these forces in the near future. Your writing here should provide a thorough prediction of what the company should do to address impacts from the selected forces. Your prediction should be your own, not predictions from your sources or actions your corporation has taken or plans to take. Remember that a thorough response is defined as providing a complete response that is not superficial or partial regarding every detail of the concepts as described in the course. Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook as each chapter provides a solid background and clues that apply to this section. Review the Week 2 Learn video Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and there should be no direct quotes in this section.
External Threats and Opportunities
Assess the external threats affecting this corporation and the opportunities available to the corporation. You will need to provide a thorough assessment of both the external threats and the opportunities available to your corporation. Do not choose one or the other. Both the external threats and the opportunities must be assessed. Keep in mind that most companies will have more than just one (1) external threat and more than just one (1) opportunity. Your thorough assessment should identify several of the threats and opportunities. Remember that threats and opportunities are external to the organization (i.e. the external environment). Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook as it provides a solid background and clues for this section. Review the Week 2 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Threats and Opportunities Strategies
Give your opinions on how the corporation should deal with the most serious threat and the greatest opportunity. Justify your answer. You will need to provide opinions on both the most serious threat and greatest opportunity. Do not choose one or the other. Both the threat and opportunity must be addressed. Your opinion on what the company should do to address the threat and opportunity should be justified by a sound and thoroughly explained rationale. Your writing here should be your own opinions, not the opinions of your sources. Read Chapter 2 in the course textbook as it provides a solid background and clues for this section. Review the Week 2 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Give your opinion on the corporation’s greatest strengths and most significant weaknesses. Keep in mind that strengths and weaknesses are internal to the organization (i.e. the internal environment) You will need to address both the greatest strengths and most significant weaknesses. Do not choose one or the other. Both the greatest strengths and most significant weaknesses must be addressed. Keep in mind that most companies will have more than just one (1) great strength and more than just one (1) significant weakness. Your thorough assessment should identify several of the great strengths and weaknesses. Read Chapter 2 and 3 in the course textbook as it provides a solid background and clues for this section. Review the Week 2 and Week 3 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Strategy
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Choose the strategy or tactic the corporation should select to take maximum advantage of its strengths, and the strategy or tactic the corporation should select to fix its most significant weakness. Justify your choices. You will need to select a strategy/tactic for both the strengths and for the weakness. Do not choose one or the other. Both the strengths and weakness must be addressed. Your justifications should be sound and thoroughly explained. For example, do not simply state that the corporation should choose a selected strategy, but rather explain why the strategy is a good choice for your corporations’ specific strengths or weakness. Read Chapter 2 and 3 in the course textbook as it provides a solid background and clues for this section. Review the Week 2 and Week 3 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.
Resources, Capabilities, and Core Competencies
Determine the company’s resources, capabilities, and core competencies. Your determination should include an explanation of the relevance of each resource, capability, and core competency. Do not simply list the resources, capabilities, and core competencies. Remember that a thorough determination will provide a complete response that is not superficial or partial regarding every detail of the concept as described in the course. Use your course materials to demonstrate your understanding of the key course concepts regarding resources, capabilities, and core competencies. Do not write in general terms. Your determination should display that you can apply the course concepts to your selected corporation. Read Chapter 3 in the course textbook as it provides a solid background and clues that apply to this section. Review the Week 3 Learn video/Lecture for supporting content. Cite all sources and limit the use of direct quotes.

Sources
Hitt, M. A., Ireland, R. D., & Hoskisson, R. E. (2013). Strategic management: Concepts and cases: Competiveness and globalization (10th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

List your sources on this page and remember to delete the instructions, which are in blue font.
Use at least three (3) quality sources, one of which must be the course textbook to support your ideas/work. Note: Wikipedia and college essay sites do not qualify as academic resources.
Cite your sources throughout your work when you borrow someone else’s words or ideas.
The source page must include all sources used. All sources listed here must be cited in your paper.
Look for a permalink tool for a webpage when possible (especially when an electronic
source requires logging in).
When using SWS remember to organize sources in a numbered list and in order of use throughout the paper; use the original number when citing a source multiple times; and follow this format for all sources:
Author. Publication Date. Title. Page # (written as p. #). How to Find (e.g. web address)
The APA format may also be used for a Reference page.
Online Professional Tutoring meets its match at https://www.homeworknest.com/ . This is by far the tested and most trusted Online College Homework Help /Tutoring Website for College Students in Universities and Colleges across the Globe. Get Online Homework Help, Assignments Help at https://www.homeworknest.com/ . Chat With Your Tutors in Real Time To Get Exam Tutoring Help!

Questions to ask yourself before submitting your paper.
Did I read the required course material and complete the required activities?
Have I deleted the blue font instructions in this template?
Did I leave the provided section headings in place, as provided in this template?
After deleting the blue fonts in this template, have I changed all font to black?
Additional things to keep in mind.
You will be graded on the content of your submission, the quality of your answers, the logic/organization of the report, your language skills, and your writing skills using the grading rubric.
Strayer uses SafeAssign – an automated plagiarism checker. It is advised that you do your own writing and use external resources to support what you have written in your own words.
Question 5: Business

Create a chart with rows and columns to establish the following requirements of discrimination under the law in the following areas at the top:

Title VII Gender Discrimination in Employment Practices
Sexual Harassment Based on Hostile Work Environment
Quid-Pro-Quo Sexual Harassment
Sexual Orientation in the Workplace

Along the left side of the chart, create the following rows:

Requirements to Prove Under the Law
Ways Employers can Minimize Liability
Recent Case Example

Complete the chart for each section.

Explain in 350 to 525 words the requirements of each type of potential gender discrimination.

Explain in 350 to 525 words the specific ways employers can minimize liability for each type of gender discrimination.

Research and include a relevant case to illustrate each type of gender discrimination.

Format your citations and references consistent with APA guidelines.

Question 6: Business

Week 3 Discussion

Respond to the following in a minimum of 175 words:
How does one recognize sexual harassment?
Discuss the different types of sexual harassment?
what is required to support a case of sexual harassment in that situation?

Question 7: Business

Total Rewards Plan Worksheet

Instructions: There are 10 positions that have become vacant due to the retirement of the University President. Your task is to recommend a salary range to post, list the benefits that will be provided for these positions, and include a list of perks that may be associated with these positions.

Complete the following table in a total of 525 to 700 words:
Explain in a total of 350 words how you determined the appropriate salary, benefits, and perks for each of these new roles.
Question 8: Business

Walden University NURS 6531 final exam (2019) | Updated
Walden University NURS 6531 final exam (2019) | Updated
Walden University NURS6531 final exam (2019) | Updated

Question 9: Business

NURS 6531 midterm exam revised, NURS 6531 Practice Care of Adults

• Question 1
0 out of 0 points

When completing this quiz, did you comply with Walden University’s Code of Conduct including the expectations for academic integrity?

• Question 2
1 out of 1 points

The most common cancer found on the auricle is:

• Question 3
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following medication classes should be avoided in patients with acute or chronic bronchitis because it will contribute to ventilation-perfusion mismatch in the patient?
• Question 4
0 out of 1 points

A 47 year old male patient presents to the clinic with a single episode of a moderate amount of bright red rectal bleeding. On examination, external hemorrhoids are noted. How should the nurse practitioner proceed?

• Question 5
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following patient characteristics are associated with chronic bronchitis?
Underweight, pink skin, and increased respiratory rate

• Question 6
1 out of 1 points

A 65-year-old female with a past medical history of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and polymyalgia rheumatica presents to urgent care with new onset left lower quadrant pain. Her current medications include omeprazole 20 milligrams po daily, lisinopril 20 milligrams po daily, simvastatin 20 milligrams po daily, and prednisone 12 milligrams po daily. The nurse practitioner suspects acute diverticulitis and possibly an abscess. The most appropriate diagnostic test for this patient at this time is:

• Question 7
1 out of 1 points

A patient reports “something flew in my eye” about an hour ago while he was splitting logs. If there were a foreign body in his eye, the nurse practitioner would expect to find all except:
Selected Answer:
Purulent drainage

• Question 8
1 out of 1 points

A 21 year old college student presents to the student health center with copious, markedly purulent discharge from her left eye. The nurse practitioner student should suspect:

• Question 9
0 out of 1 points

A 35 year old man presents with radicular pain followed by the appearance of grouped vesicles consisting of about 15 lesions across 3 different thoracic dermatomes. He complains of pain, burning, and itching. The nurse practitioner should suspect:
• Question 10
0 out of 1 points

Which type of lung cancer has the poorest prognosis?
• Question 11
1 out of 1 points

An 83-year-old female presents to the office complaining of diarrhea for several days. She explains she has even had fecal incontinence one time. She describes loose stools 3–4 times a day for several weeks and denies fever, chills, pain, recent antibiotic use. The history suggests that the patient has:

• Question 12
1 out of 1 points

Margaret, age 32, comes into the office with painful joints and a distinctive rash in a butterfly distribution on her face. The rash has red papules and plaques with a fine scale. What do you suspect?

• Question 13
1 out of 1 points

Antibiotic administration has been demonstrated to be of little benefit to the treatment of which of the following disease processes?

• Question 14
0 out of 1 points

Lisa, age 49, has daily symptoms of asthma. She uses her inhaled short-acting beta-2 agonist daily. Her exacerbations affect her activities and they occur at least twice weekly and may last for days. She is affected more than once weekly during the night with an exacerbation. Which category of asthma severity is Lisa in?
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• Question 15
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following is the most appropriate therapeutic regimen for an adult patient with no known allergies diagnosed with group A B-hemolytic strep?

• Question 16
0 out of 1 points

A cashier complains of dull ache and pressure sensation in her lower legs. It is relieved by leg elevation. She occasionally has edema in her lower legs at the end of the day. What is the most likely cause of these problems?
• Question 17
1 out of 1 points

Which statement below is correct about pertussis?
• Question 18
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following is the most important diagnosis to rule out in the adult patient with acute bronchitis?
• Question 19
1 out of 1 points

A 70 year old patient presents with left lower quadrant (LLQ) abdominal pain, a markedly tender palpable abdominal wall, fever, and leukocytosis. Of the following terms, which correctly describes the suspected condition?

• Question 20
1 out of 1 points

Sylvia, age 83, presents with a 3 day history of pain and burning in the left forehead. This morning she noticed a rash with erythematous papules in that site. What do you suspect?

• Question 21
0 out of 1 points

A 33-year-old female is admitted with acute pancreatitis. The nurse practitioner knows that the most common cause of pancreatitis is:
Selected Answer:

• Question 22
1 out of 1 points

When a patient presents with symptoms of acute gallbladder disease, what is the appropriate nurse practitioner action?

• Question 23
0 out of 1 points

A false-positive result with the fecal occult blood test can result from:

• Question 24
0 out of 1 points

A 76-year-old male complains of weight loss, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping and pain. Physical findings include an abdominal mass and stool positive for occult blood. The nurse practitioner pain suspects a tumor in the small intestine. The best diagnostic test for this patient is:
Selected Answer:
• Question 25
1 out of 1 points

A patient presents to urgent care complaining of dyspnea, fatigue, and lower extremity edema. The echocardiogram reveals and ejection fraction of 38%. The nurse practitioner knows that these findings are consistent with:

• Question 26
1 out of 1 points

Maxine, Age 76, has just been given a diagnosis of pneumonia. Which of the following is an indication that she should be hospitalized?

• Question 27
0 out of 1 points

A 55 year old man is diagnosed with basal cell carcinoma. The nurse practitioner correctly tells him:

• Question 28
1 out of 1 points

An 80-year-old male admits to difficulty swallowing during the review of systems. The nurse practitioner recognizes the differential diagnosis for this patient’s dysphagia is:

• Question 30
0 out of 1 points

A 40 year old female with history of frequent sun exposure presents with a multicolored lesion on her back. It has irregular borders and is about 11mm in diameter. What should the nurse practitioner suspect?

• Question 31
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following is not a goal of treatment for the patient with cystic fibrosis?
• Question 32
1 out of 1 points

The nurse practitioner is performing a physical exam on a middle-aged African-American man. Which of the following areas is a common site for melanomas in African-Americans and other dark-skinned individuals?

• Question 33
1 out of 1 points

An adult presents with tinea corporis. Which item below is a risk factor for its development?
• Question 34
0 out of 1 points

A patient has experienced nausea and vomiting, headache, malaise, low grade fever, abdominal cramps, and watery diarrhea for 72 hours. His white count is elevated with a shift to the left. He is requesting medication for diarrhea. What is the most appropriate response?
• Question 35
1 out of 1 points

Janine, age 29, has numerous transient lesions that come and go, and she is diagnosed with urticaria. What do you order?

• Question 36
0 out of 1 points
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Of the following signs and symptoms of congestive heart failure (CHF), the earliest clinical manifestation is:
• Question 37
1 out of 1 points

A 16 year old male presents with mild sore throat, fever, fatigue, posterior cervical adenopathy, and palatine petechiae. Without a definitive diagnosis for this patient, what drug would be least appropriate to prescribe?
• Question 38
1 out of 1 points

A 70 year old man who walks 2 miles every day complains of pain in his left calf when he is walking. The problem has gotten gradually worse and now he is unable to complete his 2 mile walk. What question asked during the history, if answered affirmatively, would suggest a diagnosis of arteriosclerosis obliterans?

• Question 39
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following statements about malignant melanomas is true?
• Question 40
1 out of 1 points

Sheila, age 78, presents with a chief complaint of waking up during the night coughing. You examine her and find an S3 heart sound, pulmonary crackles that do not clear with coughing, and peripheral edema. What do you suspect?

• Question 41
0 out of 1 points

Which antibiotic would be the most effective in treating community acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a young adult without any comorbid conditions?
• Question 42
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following dermatologic vehicles are the most effective in absorbing moisture and decreasing friction?
• Question 43
1 out of 1 points

A 70 year old patient presents with a slightly raised, scaly, erythematous patch on her forehead. She admits to having been a “sun worshiper.” The nurse practitioner suspects actinic keratosis. This lesion is a precursor to:
• Question 44
1 out of 1 points
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An elderly patient is being seen in the clinic for complaint of “weak spells” relieved by sitting or lying down. How should the nurse practitioner proceed with the physical examination?

• Question 45
1 out of 1 points

What oral medication might be used to treat chronic cholethiasis in a patient who is a poor candidate for surgery?

• Question 46
0 out of 1 points

A 46-year-old female with a past medical history of diabetes presents with a swollen, erythematous right auricle and is diagnosed with malignant otitis externa. The nurse practitioner knows that the most likely causative organism for this patient’s problem is:

• Question 47
0 out of 1 points

Which of the following is not a symptom of irritable bowel syndrome?
• Question 48
1 out of 1 points

A patient comes in complaining of 1 week of pain in the posterior neck with difficulty turning the head to the right. What additional history is needed?

• Question 49
0 out of 1 points

Marvin, age 56, is a smoker with diabetes. He has just been diagnosed as hypertensive. Which of the following drugs has the potential to cause the development of bronchial asthma and inhibit gluconeogenesis?

• Question 50
1 out of 1 points

The differential diagnosis for a patient complaining of a sore throat includes which of the following?
• Question 51
0 out of 1 points

A patient presents to the primary care provider complaining of a rash on his right forehead that started yesterday and is burning and painful. The physical exam reveals an erythematous, maculopapular rash that extends over the patient’s right eye to his upper right forehead. Based on the history and examination, the most likely cause of this patient’s symptoms is:
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• Question 52
0 out of 1 points

Before initiating an HMG CoA-reductase inhibitor for hyperlipidemia, the nurse practitioner orders liver function studies. The patient’s aminotransferase (ALT) is elevated. What laboratory test(s) should be ordered?
• Question 53
1 out of 1 points

A patient with elevated lipids has been started on lovastatin. After 3 weeks of therapy, he calls to report generalized muscle aches. The nurse practitioner should suspect:
• Question 54
1 out of 1 points

Treatment of acute vertigo includes:

• Question 55
1 out of 1 points

Treatment of H.pylori includes which of the following?
Question 56
1 out of 1 points

Carl, age 78, is brought to the office by his son, who states that his father has been unable to see clearly since last night. Carl reports that his vision is “like looking through a veil.” He also sees floaters and flashing lights but is not having any pain. What do you suspect?

• Question 57
1 out of 1 points

In order to decrease deaths from lung cancer:
• &nbs
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Question 10: Business

South University – NSG 6020 NSG 6420 MIDTERM
South University – NSG 6020NSG 6420 MIDTERM
South University – NSG 6020NSG 6420 MIDTERM
Question 11: Business

South University, Savannah NSG 6020Week 6 PV Integ Study Guide
You are assessing a 59-year-old gas station owner for atherosclerosis in the lower extremities. In which of the following locations would the patient’s pain make you concerned for this disease process?

A 57-year-old maintenance worker comes to your office for evaluation of pain in his legs. He has smoked two packs per day since the age of 16, but he is otherwise healthy. You are concerned that he may have peripheral vascular disease. Which of the following is part of common or concerning symptoms for the peripheral vascular system?

A patient has bilateral pitting edema of the feet. While assessing the peripheral vascular system, the nurse’s primary focus should be:

A patient has a positive Homans’ sign. The nurse knows that a positive Homans’ sign may indicate:

The major artery that supplies blood to arm

To assess the dorsalis pedis artery, the nurse would palpate
lateral to the extensor tendon of the great toe. The dorsalis pedis artery is located on the dorsum of the foot. Palpate just lateral to and parallel with the extensor tendon of the big toe.

The nurse is reviewing an assessment of a patient’s peripheral pulses and notices that the documentation states that the radial pulses are “2+.” The nurse recognizes that this reading indicates what type ofpulse?
A.Bounding
B.Normal
C.Weak
D.Absent

Which of the following assessment findings is most consistent with clubbing of the fingernails?
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During an assessment, the nurse notes that a patient’s left arm is swollen from the shoulder down to the fingers, with nonpitting edema. The right arm is normal. The patient had a mastectomy 1 year ago. The nurse suspects which problem?
Which of the following statements is true regarding the arterial system?

When assessing a patient the nurse practitioner documents the left femoral pulse as 0/0-4+. Which of the following findings would the nurse practitioner expect at the dorsalis pedis pulse?

Which of the following veins are responsible for most of the venous return in the arm?
1.Deep veins
2.Ulnar veins
3.Subclavian veins
4.Superficial veins

Which of the following statements is true regarding assessment of the ankle-brachial index (ABI)?

A 70-year-old patient is scheduled for open-heart surgery. The surgeon plans to use the great saphenous vein for the coronary bypass grafts. The patient asks, “What happens to my circulation when the veins are removed?” The nurse should reply:

A 72-year-old teacher comes to your clinic for an annual examination. She is concerned about her risk for peripheral vascular disease and states that there is a place in town that does tests to let her know her if she has this or not. Which of the following disease processes is a risk factor for peripheral vascular disease?

A 68-year-old retired truck driver comes to your office for evaluation of swelling in his legs. He is a smoker and has been taking medications to control his hypertension for the past 25 years. You are concerned about his risk for peripheral vascular disease. Which of the following tests are appropriate to order to initially evaluate for this condition?

A 55-year-old secretary with a recent history of breast cancer, for which she underwent surgery and radiation therapy, and a history of hypertension comes to your office for a routine checkup. Which of the following aspects of the physical are important to note when assessing the patient for peripheral vascular disease in the arms?

You are a student in the clinic. You are asked to perform a physical examination on a patient with known peripheral vascular disease in the legs. Which of the following aspects is important to note when you perform your examination?

You are assessing a patient for peripheral vascular disease in the arms, secondary to a complaint of increased weakness and a history of coronary artery disease and diabetes. You assess the brachial and radial pulses and note that they are bounding. What does that translate to on a scale of 0 to 4?

You are assessing a 59-year-old gas station owner for atherosclerosis in the lower extremities. In which of the following locations would the patient’s pain make you concerned for this disease process?

You are performing a routine check-up on an 81-year-old retired cotton farmer in the clinic. You note that he has a history of chronic arterial insufficiency. Which of the following physical examination findings in the lower extremities would be expected with this disease?

A 77-year-old retired nurse has an ulcer on a lower extremity that you are asked to evaluate when you do your weekly rounds at a local long-term care facility. All of the following are responsible for causing ulcers in the lower extremities except for which condition?

As the internal diameter of a blood vessel changes, the resistance changes as well. Which of the following descriptions depicts this relationship?

Mr. Edwards complains of cramps and difficulties with walking. The cramps occur in his calves consistently after walking about 100 yards. After a period of rest, he can start to walk again, but after 100 yards these same symptoms recur. Which of the following would suggest spinal stenosis as a cause of this pain?
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Asymmetric BPs are seen in which of the following conditions?

Diminished radial pulses may be seen in patients with which of the following?

When assessing temperature of the skin, which portion of your hand should be used?

You note a painful ulcerative lesion near the medial malleolus, with accompanying hyperpigmentation. Which of the following etiologies is most likely?
An 8-year-old girl comes with her mother for evaluation of hair loss. She denies pulling or twisting her hair, and her mother has not noted this behavior at all. She does not put her hair in braids. On physical examination, you note a clearly demarcated, round patch of hair loss without visible scaling or inflammation. There are

A mother brings her 11 month old to you because her mother-in-law and others have told her that her baby is jaundiced. She is eating and growing well and performing the developmental milestones she should for her age. On examination you indeed notice a yellow tone to her skin from head to toe. Her sclerae are white. To which area should your next questions be related?

You are examining an unconscious patient from another region and notice Beau’s lines, a transverse groove across all of her nails, about 1 cm from the proximal nail fold. What would you do next?

Dakota is a 14-year-old boy who just noticed a rash at his ankles. There is no history of exposure to ill people or other agents in the environment. He has a slight fever in the office. The rash consists of small, bright red marks. When they are pressed, the red color remains. What should you do?

A young man comes to you with an extremely pruritic rash over his knees and elbows which has come and gone for several years. It seems to be worse in the winter and improves with some sun exposure. On examination, you notice scabbing and crusting with some silvery scale, and you are observant enough to notice small “pits” in his nails. What would account for these findings?

Mrs. Anderson presents with an itchy rash which is raised and appears and disappears in various locations. Each lesion lasts for many minutes. What most likely accounts for this rash?

Which of the following is true regarding breast self-examination?
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Which of the following lymph node groups is most commonly involved in breast cancer?

51-year-old cook comes to your office for consultation. She recently found out that her 44-year-old sister with premenopausal breast cancer is positive for the BRCA1 gene. Your patient has been doing research on the Internet and saw that her chance of having also inherited the BRCA1 gene is 50%. She is interested in knowing what her risk of developing breast cancer would be if she were positive for the gene. She denies any lumps in her breasts and has had normal mammograms. She has had no weight loss, fever, or night sweats. Her mother is healthy and her father has prostate cancer. Two of her paternal aunts died of breast cancer. She is married. She denies using tobacco or illegal drugs and rarely drinks alcohol. Her breast and axilla examinations are unremarkable. At her age, what is her risk of getting breast cancer if she has the BRCA1 gene?

You ask a patient to draw a clock. He fills in all the numbers on the right half of the circle. What do you suspect?

A 67-year-old retired janitor comes to the clinic with his wife. She brought him in because she is concerned about his weight loss. He has a history of smoking 3 packs of cigarettes a day for 30 years, for a total of 90 pack-years. He has noticed a daily cough for the past several years, which he states is productive of sputum. He came into the clinic approximately 1 year ago, and at that time his weight was 140 pounds. Today, his weight is 110 pounds. Which one of the following questions would be the most important to ask if you suspect that he has lung cancer?

An 18-year-old college freshman presents to the clinic for evaluation of gastroenteritis. You measure the patient’s temperature and it is 104 degrees Fahrenheit. What type of pulse would you expect to feel during his initial examination?

A 25-year-old type 1 diabetic clerk presents with shortness of breath and states that his blood sugar was 605 at home. He was diagnosed with diabetic ketoacidosis. What is the expected pattern of breathing?

Mrs. Lenzo weighs herself every day with a very accurate balance-type scale. She has noticed that over the past 2 days she has gained 4 pounds. How would you best explain this?

Mr. Curtiss has a history of obesity, diabetes, osteoarthritis of the knees, HTN, and obstructive sleep apnea. His BMI is 43 and he has been discouraged by his difficulty in losing weight. He is also discouraged that his goal weight is 158 pounds away. What would you tell him?

You are seeing an older patient who has not had medical care for many years. Her vital signs taken by your office are: T 98.6, HR 78, BP 118/92, and RR 14, and she denies pain. You noticed that she had had some hypertensive changes in her retinas and mild proteinuria on a urine test on prior medical records. You expected the BP to be higher. She is not on any medications. What do you think is causing this BP reading, which doesn’t correlate with the other findings?

You are observing a patient with heart failure and notice that there are pauses in his breathing. On closer examination, you notice that after the pauses the patient takes progressively deeper breaths and then progressively shallower breaths, which are followed by another apneic spell. The patient is not in any distress. You make the diagnosis of:

Mr. Garcia comes to your office for a rash on his chest associated with a burning pain. Even a light touch causes this burning sensation to worsen. On examination, you note a rash with small blisters (vesicles) on a background of reddened skin. The rash overlies an entire rib on his right side. What type of pain is this?
Neuropathic pain

A patient presents with a left-sided facial droop. On further testing, you note that he is unable to wrinkle his forehead on the left and has decreased taste. Which of the following is true?
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Ms. Wright comes to your office, complaining of palpitations. While checking her pulse you notice an irregular rhythm. When you listen to her heart, every fourth beat sounds different. It sounds like a triplet rather than the usual “lub dup.” How would you document your examination?
A 37-year-old insurance agent comes to your office, complaining of trembling hands. She says that for the past 3 months when she tries to use her hands to fix her hair or cook they shake badly. She says she doesn’t feel particularly nervous when this occurs but she worries that other people will think she has an anxiety disorder or that she’s a drinker. She admits to having some recent fatigue, trouble with vision, and difficulty maintaining bladder control. Her past medical history is remarkable for hypothyroidism. Her mother has lupus and her father is healthy. She has an older brother with type 1 diabetes. She is married and has three children. She denies tobacco, alcohol, or drug use. On examination, when she tries to reach for a pencil to fill out the health form she has obvious tremors in her dominant hand.

unsteady hands. He says that for the past 6 months, when his hands are resting in his lap they shake uncontrollably. He says when he holds them out in front of his body the shaking diminishes, and when he uses his hands the shaking is also better. He also complains of some difficulty getting up out of his chair and walking around. He denies any recent illnesses or injuries. His past medical history is significant for high blood pressure and coronary artery disease, requiring a stent in the past. He has been married for over 50 years and has five children and 12 grandchildren. He denies any tobacco, alcohol, or drug use. His mother died of a stroke in her 70s and his father died of a heart attack in his 60s. He has a younger sister who has arthritis problems. His children are all essentially healthy. On examination you see a fine, pill-rolling tremor of his left hand. His right shows less movement. His cranial nerve examination is normal. He has some difficulty rising from his chair, his gait is slow, and it takes him time to turn around to walk back toward you. He has almost no “arm swing” with his gait. What type of tremor is he most likely to have?

A 48-year-old grocery store manager comes to your clinic, complaining of her head being “stuck” to one side. She says that today she was doing her normal routine when it suddenly felt like her head was being moved to her left and then it just stuck that way. She says it is somewhat painful because she cannot get it moved back to normal. She denies any recent neck trauma. Her past medical history consists of type 2 diabetes and gastroparesis (slow-moving peristalsis in the digestive tract, seen in diabetes). She is on oral medication for each. She is married and has three children. She denies tobacco, alcohol, or drug use. Her father has diabetes and her mother passed away from breast cancer. Her children are healthy. On examination you see a slightly overweight Hispanic woman appearing her stated age. Her head is twisted grotesquely to her left but otherwise her examination is normal. What form of involuntary movement does she have?

A 41-year-old real estate agent comes to your office, complaining that he feels like his face is paralyzed on the left. He states that last week he felt his left eyelid was drowsy and as the day progressed he was unable to close his eyelid all the way. Later he felt like his smile became affected also. He denies any recent injuries but had an upper respiratory viral infection last month. His past medical history is unremarkable. He is divorced and has one child. He smokes one pack of cigarettes a day, occasionally drinks alcohol, and denies any illegal drug use. His mother has high blood pressure and his father has sarcoidosis. On examination you ask him to close his eyes. He is unable to close his left eye. You ask him to open his eyes and raise his eyebrows. His right forehead furrows but his left remains flat. You then ask him to give you a big smile. The right corner of his mouth raises but the left side of his mouth remains the same. What type of facial paralysis does he have?

A 60-year-old retired seamstress comes to your office, complaining of decreased sensation in her hands and feet. She states that she began to have the problems in her feet a year ago but now it has started in her hands also. She also complains of some weakness in her grip. She has had no recent illnesses or injuries. Her past medical history consists of having type 2 diabetes for 20 years. She now takes insulin and oral medications for her diabetes. She has been married for 40 years. She has two healthy children. Her mother has Alzheimer’s disease and coronary artery disease. Her father died of a stroke and also had diabetes. She denies any tobacco, alcohol, or drug use. On examination she has decreased deep tendon reflexes in the patellar and Achilles tendons. She has decreased sensation of fine touch, pressure, and vibration on both feet. She has decreased two-point discrimination on her hands. Her grip strength is decreased and her plantar and dorsiflexion strength is decreased. Where is the disorder of the peripheral nervous system in this patient?

Question 12: Business

South University NSG 6020 Final exam study guide
South University NSG 6020Final exam study guide
A 65-year-old patient remarks that she just can’t believe that her breasts sag so much. She states it must
be from lack of exercise. What explanation should the nurse offer her?

The mother of a 10-year-old boy asks the nurse to discuss the recognition of puberty. The nurse should reply by saying:
“Puberty usually begins about age fifteen.”
“The first sign of puberty is enlargement of the testes.”
“Penis size does not increase until about the age of sixteen.”
“The development of pubic hair precedes testicular or penis enlargement.”

A patient has bilateral pitting edema of the feet. While assessing the peripheral vascular system, the nurse’s primary focus should be:
The correct answer is: Venous function of the lower extremities

During an examination, the nurse notes severe nystagmus in both eyes of a patient. Which of the following conclusions is correct?
1.This is a normal occurrence.
2.This may indicate disease of the cerebellum or brainstem.
3.This is a sign that the patient is nervous about the examination.
4.This indicates a visual problem and a referral to an ophthalmologist is indicated.
End-point nystagmus at an extreme lateral gaze occurs normally. Assess any other nystagmus carefully. Severe nystagmus occurs with disease of the vestibular system, cerebellum, or brainstem.

When performing a musculoskeletal assessment, the nurse knows the correct approach for the examination should be:
proximal to distal

A 43-year-old woman is at the clinic for a routine examination. She reports that she has had a breast lump in her right breast for years. Recently, it has begun to change in consistency and is becoming harder. She reports that 5 years ago her physician evaluated the lump and determined that it “was nothing to worry about.” The examination validates the presence of a mass in the right upper outer quadrant at 1 o’clock, approximately 5 cm from the nipple. It is firm, mobile, nontender, with borders that are not well defined. The nurse’s recommendation to her is:
“Because of the change in consistency of the lump, it should be further evaluated by a physician.”

The nurse practitioner is examining a 3-month-old infant. While holding the thumbs on the infant’s inner–mid-thighs and the fingers outside on the hips, touching the greater trochanter, the nurse practitioner adducts the legs until the nurse practitioner’s thumbs touch and then abducts the legs until the infant’s knees touch the table. The nurse practitioner does not note any “clunking” sounds and is confident to record a:
Negative Ortolani’s sign.

A patient’s mother has noticed that her son, who has been to a new babysitter, has some blisters and scabs on his face and buttocks. On examination, the nurse notices moist, thin-roofed vesicles with a thin erythematous base and suspects:
Impetigo

The nurse is testing superficial reflexes on an adult patient. When stroking up the lateral side of the sole and across the ball of the foot, the nurse notices the plantar flexion of the toes. How would the nurse document this finding?
1.Positive Babinski sign
2.Plantar reflex abnormal
3.Plantar reflex present
4.Plantar reflex “2+” on a scale from “0 to 4+”
With the same instrument, draw a light stroke up the lateral side of the sole of the foot and across the ball of the foot, like an upside-down “J.” The normal response is plantar flexion of the toes and sometimes of the whole foot.
A woman is in the family planning clinic seeking birth control information. She states that herbreasts “change all month long” and that she is worried that this is unusual. What is the nurse’s bestresponse?
Tell her that, because of the changing hormones during the monthly menstrualcycle, cyclic breast changes are common.

A patient states during the interview that she noticed a new breast lump in the shower a few days ago. It was on her left breast near her axilla. The RN should plan to:
palpate the unaffected breast first

A 16-yr-old girl is being seen at clinic for gastrointestinal complaints+weight loss. Nurse determines that many of her complaints may be related to erratic eating patterns, eating predominantly fast foods, + high caffeine intake. In this situation, which is most appropriate when collecting current dietary intake information?
•1. Schedule a time for direct observation of the adolescent during meals.
•2. Ask the patient for a 24-hour diet recall and assume this is reflective of a typical day for her.
3. Have the patient complete a food diary for 3 days=2 weekdays + 1 weekend day
Fooddiaries require the individual to write down everything consumed for a certaintime period. Because of the erratic eating patterns of this individual,assessing dietary intake over a few days would produce more accurateinformation regarding eating patterns. Direct observation is best used withyoung children or older adults.

To assess the head control of a 4-month-old infant, the nurse lifts the infant up in a prone position while supporting his chest. The nurse looks for what normal response?
1.Raises head and arches back.
2.Extends arms and drops head down.
3.Flexes knees and elbows with back straight.
4.Holds head at 45 degrees and keeps back straight.
At 3 months of age, the baby raises the head and arches the back as if in a swan dive. This is the Landau reflex, which persists until 11/2 years of age.
A patient has a positive Homans’ sign. The nurse knows that a positive Homans’ sign may indicate:
deep vein thrombosis.

The nurse is discussing breast self-examination with a postmenopausal woman. The best time forpostmenopausal women to perform breast self-examination is:
A=the same day every month.

A 15-year-old boy is seen in the clinic for complaints of “dull pain and pulling” in the scrotal area. On examination the nurse palpates a soft, irregular mass posterior to and above the testis on the left. This mass collapses when the patient is supine and refills when he is upright. This description is consistent with:
varicocele

The nurse is bathing an 80-year-old man and notices that his skin is wrinkled,thin, lax, and dry. This finding would be related to which factor?
An increased loss of elastin and a decrease in subcutaneous fat in the elderly

A woman who is 22 weeks pregnant has a vaginal infection. She tells the nurse that she is afraid that this infection will hurt the fetus. The nurse knows that which of these statements is true?
A thick mucus plug forms that protects the fetus from infection.

In assessment of 1-month-old, nurse notes a lack of response to noise or stimulation. mother reports that in the last week he has been sleeping all the time + when awake all he does is cry. nurse hears that infant’s cries are very high pitched and shrill. What would be nurse’s appropriate response?
1.Refer the infant for further testing.
2.Talk with the mother about eating habits.
3.Nothing; these are expected findings for an infant this age.
4.Tell the mother to bring the baby back in a week for a recheck.
A high-pitched shrill cry or cat-sounding screech occurs with central nervous system damage. Lethargy, hyporeactivity, hyperirritability, and parent’s report of significant change in behavior all warrant referral.

A female patient is 8 months pregnant. She comments that she has noticed a change in posture and is having lower back pain. The nurse tells her that during pregnancy women have a posture shift to compensate for the enlarging fetus. This shift in posture is:
lordosis

A 14-year-old girl is anxious about not having reached menarche. When taking the history, the nurse should ascertain which of the following?The age:
she began to develop breasts

A 9-year-old girl is in the clinic for a sports physical. After some initial shyness she finally asks,“Am I normal? I don’t seem to need a bra yet, but I have some friends who do. What if I never getbreasts?” The nurse’s best response would be:
“I understand that it is hard to feel different from your friends. Breasts usually develop between 8 and 10 years of age.”

During an examination, the nurse notes a supernumerary nipple just under the patient’s left breast.The patient tells the nurse that she always thought it was a mole. Which statement about this findingis correct?
It is a normal variation and not a significant finding

The major artery that supplies blood to arm
brachial artery

The nurse is testing the function of cranial nerve XI. Which of these best describes the response the nurse should expect if the nerve is intact? The patient
moves head and shoulder against resistance w/equal strength

In a person with an upper motor neuron lesion such as a cerebrovascular accident, which of the following physical assessment findings would the nurse expect to see?
1.Hyperreflexia
2.Fasciculations
3.Loss of muscle tone and flaccidity
4.Atrophy and wasting of the muscles
Hyperreflexia, diminished or absent superficial reflexes, increased muscle tone or spasticity can be expected with upper motor neuron lesions.

A few days after a summer hiking trip, a 25-year-old man comes to the clinic with a rash. On examination, the nurse notes that the rash is red, macular, with a bull’s eye pattern across his midriff and behind his knees. The nurse suspects:
Lyme Disease

To assess the dorsalis pedis artery, the nurse would palpate
lateral to the extensor tendon of the great toe.The dorsalis pedis artery is located on the dorsum of the foot. Palpate just lateral to and parallel with the extensor tendon of the big toe.

The nurse is performing a neurologic assessment on a 41-year-old woman with a history of diabetes. When testing her ability to feel the vibrations of a tuning fork, the nurse notes the following: unable to feel vibrations on the great toe or ankle bilaterally; is able to feel vibrations on both patellae. Given this information, what would the nurse suspect?
1.Hyperalgesia
2.Hyperesthesia
3.Peripheral neuropathy
4.Lesion of sensory cortex
Loss of vibration sense occurs with peripheral neuropathy (e.g., diabetes and alcoholism). Peripheral neuropathy is worse at the feet and gradually improves as you move up leg, as opposed to a specific nerve lesion, which has a clear zone of deficit for its dermatome

During an examination, you note that a male patient has a red, round, superficial ulcer with a yellowish-serous discharge on his penis. Upon palpation, you note a nontender base that feels like a small button between your thumb and fingers. At this point you suspect that this patient has:
syphilitic chancre

During an interview, a patient reveals that she is pregnant. She states that she is not sure whether shewill breastfeed her baby and asks for some information about this. Which of these statements by the nurse is accurate with regard to breastfeeding?
“Breastfeeding provides the perfect food and antibodies for your baby.”
or Breast-feeding may reduce the risk of breast cancer.

To palpate the temporomandibular joint, the nurse’s finger should be placed in the depression of the ear.
anterior to the tragus

The nurse practitioner is examining only the rectal area of a woman and should place the woman in what position?
The nurse should place the female patient in lithotomy position if examining genitalia as well; use the left lateral decubitus position for the rectal area alone.
The nurse is performing a genitourinary assessment on a 50-year-old obese male laborer. On examination the nurse notices a painless round swelling close to the pubis in the area of the internal inguinal ring that is easily reduced when the individual is supine. These findings are most consistent with a(n) _____ hernia.
Direct inguinal

The nurse is conducting a class about breast self-examination (BSE). Which of these statementsindicates proper BSE technique?
C)The best time to perform BSE is 4 to 7 days after the first day of the menstrual
period.

A man found wandering in park at 2AM has been brought to emergency department for examination because he said he fell+hit head. During examination, nurse asks him to use his index finger to touch nurse’s finger, then own nose, then nurse’s finger again (moved to a different location). patient is clumsy, unable to follow the instructions, +overshoots mark, missing finger. nurse suspects…
1.Cerebral injury
2.Cerebrovascular accident
3.Acute alcohol intoxication
4.Peripheral neuropathy
During the finger-to-finger test, if the person has clumsy movement with overshooting the mark, either a cerebellar disorders or acute alcohol intoxication should be suspected.

Which of the following assessment findings is most consistent with clubbing of the fingernails?
An angle of the nail base of 180 degrees or greater with a nail base that feels spongy

A 45-year-old mother of two children is seen at the clinic for complaints of “losing my urine when I sneeze.” The nurse documents that she is experiencing:
stress incontinence

A patient calls the clinic for instructions before having a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear. The most appropriate instructions from the nurse are:
“Avoid intercourse, inserting anything into the vagina, or douching within 24 hours of your appointment.”

Which of the following statements is true regarding the penis?
The corpus spongiosum expends into a cone of erectile tissue called the glans

When performing the bimanual examination, the nurse notices that the cervix feels smooth and firm, is round, and is fixed in place (does not move). When cervical palpation is performed, the patient complains of some pain. The nurse’s interpretation of these results should be which of these?
The cervix should move when palpated; an immobile cervix may indicate malignancy.

You are examining a 6 month old baby. You place the baby’s feet flat on the table and flex his knees up. you note that the right knee is significantly lower than the left. Which of the following is true of this finding?
This is a positive Allis sign and suggests hip dislocation

A 75-year-old woman who has a history of diabetes and peripheral vascular disease has been trying to remove a corn on the bottom of her foot with a pair of scissors. The nurse will encourage her to stop trying to remove the corn with scissors because:
the woman could be at increased risk for infection and lesions because of her chronic disease
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You are examining Mr. O, and when you ask him to bend forward from the waist, you notice lateral tilting; when you raise his leg straight up, he complains of a pain going down his buttock into his leg. You suspect:
herniated nucleus pulposus

The assessment of an 80-year-old patient, the nurse notes that his hands show tremors when he reaches for something and that his head is always nodding. There is no associated rigidity with movement. Which of the following statements is most accurate?
these findings are normal

Which of the following statements is true regarding the arterial system?
The arterial system is a high-pressure system.

A patient who is visiting the clinic complains of having “stomach pains for 2 weeks” and describes his stools as being “soft and black” for about the last 10 days. He denies taking any medications. The NP is aware that these symptoms are most indicative of:
occult blood resulting from gastrointestinal bleeding.

During an internal examination of a woman’s genitalia, the nurse will use which technique for proper insertion of the speculum?
Instruct the woman to bear down, turn the width of the blades horizontally, and insert the speculum at a 45-degree angle downward toward the small of the woman’s back.
During an internal examination of a woman’s genitalia, the nurse practitioner will use which technique for proper insertion of the speculum?
Insert the blades of the speculum on a horizontal plane, turning them to a 45-degree angle while continuing to insert them. Ask the woman to bear down to ease insertion.
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When assessing a patient the nurse practitioner documents the left femoral pulse as 0/0-4+. Which of the following findings would the nurse practitioner expect at the dorsalis pedis pulse?
0/0-4+Pulsations are graded on a four-point scale: 0, absent; 1+, weak; 2+, normal; 3+, increased; 4+, bounding. If a pulse is absent at the femoral site, one would expect the dorsalis pedis pulse to be absent also.

A 2-year-old boy has been diagnosed with “physiologic cryptorchidism.” Given this diagnosis, during assessment the nurse will most likely observe:
An absence of the testis in the scrotum, but the testis can be milked down

The nurse practitioner is doing an assessment on a 29-year-old woman who visits the clinic complaining of “always dropping things and falling down.” While testing rapid alternating movements, the nurse practitioner notices that the woman is unable to pat both her knees. Her response is very slow and she misses frequently. What might the nurse practitioner suspect?
Dysfunction of the cerebellum
In rapid, alternating movements, slow, clumsy, and sloppy response occurs with cerebellar disease.

The wife of a 65 year old man tells the nurse that she is concerned because she has noted a change in her husband’s personality and ability to understand. He also cries and becomes angry very easily. The nurse recalls that the cerebral lobe responsible for these behaviors is which of the following?
Frontal

A male patient with possible fertility problems asks the nurse where sperm is produced. The nurse knows that sperm production occurs in the:
testes.

Which of the following statements reflects the best approach to teaching a woman about breast self-examination (BSE)?
“BSE on a monthly basis will help you feel familiar with your own breasts and their normal variations.”
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When assessing a patient’s pulse, the nurse practitioner notes that the amplitude is weaker during inspiration and stronger during expiration. When the nurse practitioner measures the blood pressure, the reading decreases 20 mm Hg during inspiration and increases with expiration. This patient is experiencing:
pulsusparadoxus.

A patient has had a “terrible itch” for several months that he has been scratching continuously. On examination, the nurse might expect to find:
lichenification

During an annual physical exam, a 43-year-old patient states that she doesn’t perform monthly breast self-examination (BSE). She tells the nurse that she believes that mammograms “do a much better job than I ever could to find a lump.” The nurse should explain to her that:
BSEs may detect lumps that appear between mammograms./ mammography may not detect all palpable lumps.

A patient’s annual physical examination reveals a lateral curvature of the thoracic and lumbar segments of his spine; however, this curvature disappears with forward bending. This abnormality of the spine would be called:
Functional scoliosis
Assessment of a 60-yr-old patient has taken longer than anticipated. in testing pain perception nurse decides to complete the test as quickly as possible. When nurse applies sharp point of pin on his arm several times, he is only able to identify these as one ‘very sharp prick.’ most accurate explanation?
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1.has hyperesthesia as a result of aging process
2.most likely the result of the summation effect.
3.The nurse was probably not poking hard enough with the pin in the other areas.
4.The patient most likely has analgesia in some areas of arm and hyperalgesia in others.
ANS: 2Let at least 2 seconds elapse between each stimulus to avoid summation. With summation, frequent consecutive stimuli are perceived as one strong stimulus.

Assessing a 7-month-old infant you make a loud noise and note the following response: Abduction and flexion of arms and legs; fanning of fingers and curling of index finger and thumb in C-position; followed by infant bringing in arms and legs to body. What do you know about this?
1.This could indicate brachial nerve palsy
2.This is an expected startle response at this age
3.This reflex should disappear between 1 and 4 months of age
4.It is normal as long as movements are symmetrical bilaterally

The nurse is assessing a 75-year-old man. As the nurse beings the mental status portion of the assessment, the nurse expects that this patient:
may take a little longer to respond, but his general knowledge and abilities should not have declined.

During an external genitalia examination of a woman, the nurse notices several lesions around the vulva. The lesions are pink, moist, soft, and pointed papules. The patient states that she is not aware ofany problems in that area. The nurse recognizes that these lesions may be:
HPV or genital WARTs

A 40-year-old woman reports a change in mole size, accompanied by color changes, itching, burning, and bleeding over the past month. She has a dark complexion and has no family history of skin cancer, but she has had many blistering sunburns in the past. The nurse would:
Refer the patient because of the suspicion of melanoma on the basis of her symptoms.

Which of the following veins are responsible for most of the venous return in the arm?
1.Deep veins
2.Ulnar veins
3.Subclavian veins
4.Superficial veins

A man who has had gout for several years comes to the clinic with a “problem with my toe.” On examination, the nurse practitioner notes the presence of hard, painless nodules over the great toe; one had burst open with a chalky discharge. This finding is known as:
Tophi are collections of sodium urate crystals resulting from chronic gout in and around the joint that cause extreme swelling and joint deformity. They appear as hard, painless nodules (tophi) over the metatarsophalangeal joint of the first toe and they sometimes burst with a chalky discharge
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The nurse is performing a well-child assessment on a 3-year-old child. The child’s vital signs are normal. Capillary refill time is 5 seconds. The nurse would:
1.ask the parent if the child has had frostbite in the past.
2.suspect that the child has a venous insufficiency problem.
3.consider this a delayed capillary refill time and investigate further.
4.consider this a normal capillary refill time that requires no further assessment.
Normal capillary refill time is less than 1 to 2 seconds. Note that these conditions can skew your findings: a cool room, decreased body temperature, cigarette smoking, peripheral edema, and anemia.
A 70-year-old patient is scheduled for open-heart surgery. The surgeon plans to use the great saphenous vein for the coronary bypass grafts. The patient asks, “What happens to my circulation when the veins are removed?” The nurse should reply:
“Because the deeper veins in your leg are in good condition, this vein can be removed without harming your circulation.”

When observing the vestibule, the nurse practitioner should be able to see the:
Urethral meatus and vaginal orifice

When the nurse is conducting sexual history from a male adolescent, which statement would be most appropriate to use at the beginning of the interview?
Often boys your age have questions about sexual activity

The nurse practitioner is palpating the abdomen of a woman who is 35 weeks’ pregnant and notes that the fetal head is facing downward toward the pelvis. The nurse practitioner would document this as:
B) Fetal presentation
Fetal presentation describes the part of the fetus that is entering the pelvis first. Fetal lie is orientation of the fetal spine to the maternal spine. Attitude is the position of the fetal parts in relation to each other, and fetal variety is the location of the fetal back to the maternal pelvis.

Which of the following factors is most likely to affect the nutritional status of an 82-year-old person?
Socioeconomic conditions frequently have the greatest effect on the nutritional status of the aging adult; these factors should be closely evaluated. Physical limitations, income, and social isolation are frequent problems and can obviously interfere with the acquisition of a balanced diet.

When performing a genital examination on a 25-year-old man, the nurse notices deeply pigmented, wrinkled scrotal skin with large sebaceous follicles. On the basis of this information the nurse would:
consider this a normal finding and proceed with the examination.
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Mrs. A has had arthritis for years and is starting to notice that her fingers are drifting to this side. This is commonly referred to as:
ulnar deviation

A nurse is assessing a patient’s risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI). An appropriate question to ask would be:
“Do you use a condom with each episode of sexual intercourse?”

A 14-year-old boy who has been diagnosed with Osgood-Schlatter disease reports painful swelling just below the knee for the past 5 months. Which response by the nurse practitioner is appropriate?
“Your disease is due to repeated stress on the patellar tendon. It is usually self-limited, and your symptoms should resolve with rest.”

Which of the following is considered a normal and expected finding when the nurse practitioner is performing a physical examination on a pregnant woman?

A 54-year-old woman who has just completed menopause is in the clinic today for a yearly physical examination. Which of these statements should the nurse include in patient education? “A postmenopausal woman:
should be aware that she is at increased risk for dyspareunia because of decreased vaginal secretions.”

The nurse practitioner has completed the musculoskeletal examination of a patient’s knee and has found a positive bulge sign. The nurse suspects:
Swelling from fluid in the suprapatellar pouch

Which of the following statements is true with regard to the history of a postmenopausal woman?

When performing a genital assessment on a middle-aged man, the nurse notices multiple soft, moist, painless papules in the shape of cauliflower-like patches scattered across the shaft of the penis. These lesions are characteristic of:
genital warts.

During a physical examination, a 45-year-old woman states that she has had a crusty, itchy rash on her breast for about 2 weeks. In trying to find the cause of the rash, which of these would beimportant for the nurse to determine?
Where did it first appear—on the nipple, the areola, or the surrounding skin?

Which of the following statements is true regarding assessment of the ankle-brachial index (ABI)?
ABI = highest ankle pressure divided by the highest brachial pressure

The patient is in her first trimester of pregnancy. She complains of feeling nauseated and has vomited on occasion. She tells the nurse that she did not have this with her first pregnancy. She asks the nurse, “What is causing this and when will it end?” How should the nurse respond?

The nausea is caused by elevated levels of progesterone and estrogen, and the nausea should end once her body adjusts to the increased hormone levels.

A professional tennis player comes in complaining of a sore elbow. You suspect that he has tenderness at:
the medial and lateral epicondyle

During a bimanual examination, the nurse detects a solid tumor on the ovary that is heavy and fixed,with a poorly defined mass. This finding is suggestive of:
ovarian cancer

When doing the history on a patient with a seizure disorder, the nurse assesses whether the patient has an aura. Which of the following would be the best question for obtaining this information?
Do you have any warning sign before your seizure starts?

Feedback: Aura is a subjective sensation that precedes a seizure; it could be auditory, visual, or motor.

The nurse practitioner is assessing a 1-week-old infant and testing his muscle strength. The nurse practitioner lifts the infant with hands under the axillae and notes that the infant starts to “slip” between the hands. The nurse practitioner should:
Suspect that the infant may have weakness of the shoulder muscles

In examining a 70-year-old male patient, the nurse notices that he has bilateral gynecomastia. Whichof the following describes the nurse’s best course of action?
Explain that this condition may be the result of hormonal changes and recommendthat he see his physician.
While the nurse practitioner is taking the history of a 68-year-old patient who sustained a head injury 3 days earlier, he tells the nurse practitioner that he is on a cruise ship and is 30 years old. The nurse practitioner knows that this finding is indicative of:
Decreased level of consciousness.

A woman has just been diagnosed with HPV, or genital warts. The nurse should counsel her to receive regular examinations because this virus makes her at a higher risk for _____ cancer.
cervical

During an annual check-up of a 55 y/o patient, the nurse discusses the early detection measures for colon cancer. The nurse should mention the need for a
colonoscopy every 10 years

What are the two main parts of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

While obtaining a history of a 3-month old infant from the mother, the nurse practitioner asks about the baby’s ability to suck and grasp the mother’s finger. What is the nurse practitioner assessing?

The nurse practitioner auscultates a functional systolic murmur, grade II/IV, on a woman in week 30 of her pregnancy. The remainder of her physical assessment is within normal limits. The nurse practitioner would:

The nurse practitioner knows that classic symptoms associated with preeclampsia include:

Question 13: Business

Analyze the case study titled “Who’s the World’s Top Retailer? Walmart and Amazon Duke It Out” on pp.
116-118 of your textbook.
For this assignment, you will need to:
1. analyze the case study comparing Walmart and Amazon’s business models and business strategies,
2. explain the role that information technology plays in each of these businesses and describe the role of the various
IT professionals involved in this case,
3. explain how IT helps influence Walmart and Amazon’s organizational strategies, and
4. summarize your findings in a two- to three-page paper.

Instructions
There are several standardized training events in large organizations that are required annually or biannually. One of these is often sexual harassment. For this assignment, write a training plan for all employees in your firm to educate and develop their awareness of sexual harassment and understanding of legal and organizational policies. Be sure to include training aspects of planning, design, implementation, and evaluation.
This plan should be in narrative form with a minimum requirement of 500 words. Discuss the following guidelines to complete your plan.
Planning: Should all employees be trained at once? If not, who should be trained first? What are the anticipated outcomes or terminal learning objectives of the training?
Design: In what format should the training be given, and why? What modalities will be used for employees on multiple shifts or in multiple locations? What are the core elements of the training that will align with the learning objectives?
Implementation: Who will lead the training, and how will it be implemented? Will you be training for knowledge or behavior change? How will you conduct the actual training to account for knowledge and/or behavioral change?
Evaluation: How will you know if the training was successful? What measures will you use to know if employees 1) learned from the training, 2) behaved differently after the training, and 3) the training has a bottom line impact to the firm?
Any sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations in APA format.

“State of Estates” is a national estate planning firm with 2,500 employees in eight states.

Prepare a 10- to 15-slide Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentation with speaker notes for upper management at “State of Estates” to address the following areas:
An overview of Title VII as applied to race and national origin discrimination
Ways “State of Estates” can minimize liability for race and national origin discrimination in its employment practices
The three types of affirmative action
Whether any type of affirmative action is required or recommended for the firm

Include visual interest in the form of relevant photos, clip art, and/or graphics.

Format your presentation consistent with APA guidelines and include both an introduction slide and reference slide.

Assignment #3: Inferential Statistics Analysis and Write up
Purpose: The purpose of this assignment is to develop and carry out an inferential statistics analysis plan and write up the findings. There are two main parts to this assignment: ● Part A: Inferential Statistics Data Plan and Analysis ● Part B: Write up of Results
Part A: Prepare Data Plan, Analyze Data, and Complete Part A of the Assignment #3 Template ➢ Task 1: Select Variables. Review the variables you used for assignments #1 and #2. Select your qualitative socioeconomic variable as your grouping variable and the two expenditure variables from the variables used in these previous assignments. Fill in Table 1: Variables Selected for Analysis with name, description, and type of variable (i.e., qualitative or quantitative). ➢ Task 2: Select and Run a One Sample Confidence Interval Analysis. For one expenditure
variable, select and run the appropriate method for estimating a parameter, based on a statistic
(i.e., confidence interval method). Complete Table 2: Confidence Interval Information and
Results, which follows the format outlined by Kozak and the course’s problem-solving approach,
including:
○ Random variable stated in words ○ Confidence interval method, including rationale and assumptions ○ Method used for analyzing data (i.e., web applets, Excel, TI calculator, etc.). ○ Results obtained ○ Interpretation
➢ Task 3: Select Two Sample Hypothesis Test. Using the second expenditure variable (with the
socioeconomic variable as the grouping variable), select and run the appropriate method for
making decisions about two parameters relative to observed statistics (i.e., two sample
STAT200: Assignment #3 – Inferential Statistics Analysis and Writeup – Instructions Page 2 of 5
hypothesis test method). Complete Table 3: Two Sample Hypothesis Test Analysis, which
follows the format outlined by Kozak and the course’s problem-solving approach, including:
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○ Hypotheses (null and alternative). ○ Two sample hypothesis testing method, including rationale and assumptions ○ Method used for analyzing data (i.e., web applets, Excel, TI calculator, etc.). ○ Results obtained. ○ Interpretation (i.e., Reject the null hypothesis OR Fail to reject null hypothesis)
Step 2: Write Up Results and Complete Part B of the Assignment #3 Template
For this 1 to 2 page section, refer to the inferential statistics data plan and computations done for Part A of this assignment. Address the following area: ➢ Introduction. Based on the scenario you submitted for the second assignment, provide a brief description of scenario, including the variables that were used in this analysis. Include a completed “Table 1: Variables Selected for Analysis to show the variables you selected for analysis. ➢ Data Set Description and Method Used for Analysis. Briefly describe the data set, using information provided with data set and write up in Assignment #2. Also describe what method(s) (i.e., free web applets, Excel, TI Calculator) you used to analyze the data. ➢ Results. In this section, you will report the results of your inferential statistics data analysis.
For the Confidence Interval Analysis, write one paragraph that includes: o Statistical method used, including rationale and whether assumptions were met. o Statistical Interpretation. The statistical interpretation is that the confidence interval has a probability (1−α, where α is the complement of the confidence level) of containing the population parameter. o Real World Interpretation. Explain the results in everyday language. Recommend reviewing the text and information from the classroom for examples on how to report results in everyday language.

STAT200: Assignment #3 – Inferential Statistics Analysis and Writeup – Instructions Page 3 of 5
For the Two Sample Hypothesis Test Analysis, write one paragraph that includes: o Hypotheses that were assessed. See below table for example format: Examples Format for Writing Null and Alternative Hypotheses, in Words
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in [insert variable name] between [insert group 1 name] and [insert group 2 name] households.
Alternative Hypothesis:
➢ For two-tailed (≠): There is a significant difference in [insert variable name] between [insert group 1 name] and [insert group 2 name] households.
➢ For one-tailed (>): [Insert group 1 name] has statistically significantly higher [insert variable name] than [insert group 2 name].
➢ For one-tailed (<): [Insert group 1 name] has statistically significantly lower [insert variable name] than [insert group 2 name].
o Statistical method used, including rationale and whether assumptions were met. See below table for example format: Example Format for Writing Statistical Method with Rationale
To determine whether the there was a difference in [insert household expenditure]
between [insert names of two groups), a [insert name of hypothesis test used] was
used. It was the appropriate statistical method, because [insert rationale]. The
assumptions were assessed [insert information about the assumptions assessed and
whether they were met].
o Conclusion from the Results. This is where you state whether to reject Ho or fail to reject Ho including the p-value that was obtained. The rule is: if the p-value < α, then reject Ho. If the p-value ≥α, then fail to reject Ho.
STAT200: Assignment #3 – Inferential Statistics Analysis and Writeup – Instructions Page 4 of 5
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o Real World Interpretation. Explain, in everyday language, the results. If any of the assumptions were not met, describe how it might affect conclusions. Address issues of Type I and/or Type II Error, where appropriate. Recommend reviewing the text and information from the classroom for examples on how to report results in everyday language.
➢ Discussion– Write one paragraph that summarizes the results of your findings and how they may be helpful to the person described in the scenario, when making a household budget

ECON 205 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE

Exam #1

1. A resource is anything that:
A)can be used in production.
B) you pay for.
C) is in scarce supply.
D) can be consumed.

2. Scarcity in economics means:
A)not having sufficient resources to produce all the goods and service we want.
B) the wants of people are limited.
C) there must be poor people in rich countries.
D) economics are clearly not doing their jobs.

3. Opportunity cost is:
A) about half of the monetary cost of a product.
B) the dollar payment for a product.
C) the benefit derived from a product.
D)the value of the best alternative forgone in making any choice.

4. Margo spends $10,000 on one year’s college tuition. The opportunity cost of spending one year in college for Margo is:
A) $10,000
B) whatever she would have purchased with the $10,000 instead.
C) whatever she would have earned had she not been in college.
D)whatever she would have purchased with the $10,000 instead and whatever she would have earned had she not been in college.

5. We are forced to make choices because of:
A) exploitation.
B) efficiency.
C)scarcity.
D) the margin.

6. A choice made ________ is a choice whether to do a little more or a little less of something.
A) at the fringe
B) in the beginning
C)at the margin
D) after the fact

7. A production possibility frontier illustrates the ______ facing an economy that ______ only two goods.
A) prices; sells
B)trade-offs; produces
C) trade-offs; consumes
D) shortages; produces
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8. When moving along a production possibility frontier, the opportunity cost to society of getting more of one good:
A) is constant.
B) is measured in dollar terms.
C)is measured by the amount of the good that must be given up.
D) usually decreases.

Use the following to answer questions 9-11:
Figure: Guns and Butter

9.
(Figure: Guns and Butter) On this figure, points A, B, E,and F:
A)indicate combinations of guns and butter that society can produce using all of its factor efficiently.
B) show that the opportunity cost of more guns increases, but that of more butter decreases.
C) indicate that society wants butter more than it wants guns.
D) indicate constant costs for guns and increasing costs for butter.

10. (Figure: Guns and Butter) This possibility frontier is:
A)bowed out from the origin because of increasing opportunity costs.
B) bowed in toward the origin because of increasing opportunity costs.
C) bowed in toward the origin because of constant costs of guns and butter.
D) linear because of constant costs.

11. (Figure: Guns and Butter) If the economy were operating at point B, producing 16 units of guns and 12 units of butter per period, a decision to move to point E and produce 18 units of butter:
A) indicates you can have more butter and guns simultaneously.
B) makes it clear that this economy experiences decreasing opportunity costs.
C)involves a loss of 8 units of guns per period.
D) involves a loss of 4 units of guns per period.

12. An economy is said to have a comparative advantage in the production of one good if it:
A) can produce more of all goods than another country.
B) can produce less of all goods than another country.
C) has the highest opportunity cost for producing a particular good.
D)has the lowest opportunity cost for producing a particular good.

13. In one hour, the United States can produce 25 tons of steel or 250 automobiles. In one hour, Japan can produce 30 tons of steel or 275 automobiles. This information implies that:
A) Japan has a comparative advantage in the production of automobiles.
B) the Unites States has an absolute advantage in the production of steel.
C) Japan has a comparative advantage in the production of both goods.
D) the United States has a comparative advantage in the production of automobiles.

14. Free trade between countries:
A) should be based on absolute advantage.
B) will allow wealthy countries to exploit less developed nations.
C) will shift the domestic production possibility frontier to the right.
D)will allow for greater levels of consumption than without trade.

Use the following to answer questions 15-17:

Figure: Comparative Advantage
Eastland and Westland produce only two goods, peaches and oranges, and this figure shows each nation’s production possibility frontier for the two foods.

15. (Figure: Comparative Advantage) The opportunity cost of producing 1 unit of peaches for Westland is:
A) 1 unit of oranges.
B) ¼ unit of oranges.
C) 4 units of oranges.
D) 10 units of oranges

16. (Figure: Comparative Advantage) Westland has an absolute advantage in producing:
A) oranges only.
B)peaches only.
C) both oranges and peaches.
D) neither oranges or peaches.

17. (Figure: Comparative Advantage) Eastland has a comparative advantage in producing:
A)oranges only.
B) peaches only.
C) both oranges and peaches.
D) neither oranges or peaches.

18. The economy’s factors of production are not equally suitable for producing different types of goods. The principle generates:
A) economic growth.
B) technical efficiency.
C) resource underutilization.
D)the law of increasing opportunity cost.

19. Economists generally believe that a country should specialize in the production of a good or service if:
A) the production possibility frontier is larger than that of any other country.
B) the production possibility frontier is smaller than that of any other country.
C) the country can produce the product using fewer resources than any other country.
D)the country can produce the product while forgoing fewer alternative products than any other country.

20. The demand curve for videos has shifted to the right. What could have caused it?
A) a fall in the price of videos
B) an increase in the price of videos
C) an increase in the supply of videos
D)an increase in the incomes of buyers

21. The law of demand states other things equal:
A) as the price increases, the quantity demanded will increase.

B) as the price decreases, the demand curve will shift to the right.
C) as the price increases, the demand will decrease.
D)as the price increases, the quantity demanded will decrease.

22. A shift of the demand curve for Luis’s Pizza would not be caused by a change in the:
A) buyer’s incomes.
B)price of Luis’s Pizza.
C) price of Humberto’s Pizza.
D) popularity of Luis’s Pizza.

23. If goods A and B are substitutes, a decrease in the price of good B will:
A) increase the demand for good A.
B) increase the demand for good B.
C) decrease the demand for good A.
D) increase the demand for good B and decrease the demand for good A.

Use the following to answer questions 24-25:

Figure: Demand for Coconuts

24. (Figure: Demand for Coconuts) If a coconut is a normal good and the price of coconuts increases, then the movement that would take place in the model could be:
A) A to B.
B) B to A.
C) C to A.
D) E to B.

25. (Figure Demand for Coconuts) If coconuts are considered a normal good and there is an expectation on the part of consumers that the prices of coconuts will rise significantly in the near future, then the movement that would take place in the model could be:
A) C to A.
B) A to B.
C) B to E.
D)E to B.

26. When the price of gas goes up and the demand for tires goes down, this means tires and gas are:
A) substitutes.
B)complements.
C) both expensive.
D) both inexpensive.

27. Which of the following would shift the demand curve for new textbook to the right?
A) a decrease in the price of paper
B) a fall in the price of used textbooks
C)an increase in college enrollments
D) a fall in the price of new textbooks

28. A good is normal if:
A) when income increases, the demand remains unchanged.
B) when income increases, the demand decreases.
C)when income increases, the demand increases.
D) income and the demand are unrelated.

Exam #2

1. The typical supply curve illustrates that:
A) other things equal, the quantity supplied for a good is inversely related to the price of a good.
B) other things equal, the supply of the good created its own demand for the good.
C)other things equal, the quantity supplied for a good is positively related to the price of a good.
D)price and quantity supplied are unrelated.

2. Which of the following is not a determinant of supply?
A) expectations regarding future prices
B) the technology of production
C) the cost of production
D) consumer tastes

Use the following to answer questions 3-5:

Figure: Supply of Coconuts

3. (Figure: Supply of Coconuts) If the price of coconuts decreases, then the movement that would take place in the model could be:
A)A to B
B) B to A
C) C to A
D) E to B
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4. (Figure: Supply of Coconuts) If the prices of inputs (e.g. labor, fertilizer, and fuel) used to produce and transport coconuts are increasing, then the movement in the model could be:
A) A to B
B) B to A
C)C to A
D) E to B

5. (Figure: Supply of Coconuts)If there is an improvement in the technology used to harvest coconuts (e.g. a faster, less expensive coconut picker), then the movement in the model could be:
A)A to C
B) B to A
C) C to A
D) Bto E

6. The market for soybeans is initially in equilibrium. Because of “mad cow disease,” cattle feed producers decided to replace bone meal with soybeans in cattle feed. The likely effect is that:
A)the equilibrium price and quantity of soybeans will rise.
B) the equilibrium price and quantity of soybeans will fall.
C) the equilibrium quantity of soybeans will rise, but we can’t determine what will happen to the equilibrium price.
D)the equilibrium price of soybeans will rise, but we can’t determine what will happen to the equilibrium quantity.

7. Excess supply occurs when:
A) the price is above the equilibrium price.
B) the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied.
C) the price is below equilibrium price.
D) the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied and when the price is below the equilibrium quantity.

8. The market for milk is initially in equilibrium. Milk producers now engage in a costly advertising program to encourage milk drinking. Assume that the advertising campaign succeeds in shifting consumer tastes toward drinking milk and that milk producers provide more milk to the market. More milk producers enter the market. Standard demand and supply analysis tells us that:
A) the equilibrium price and quantity of milk will rise.
B) the equilibrium price and quantity of milk will fall.
C)the equilibrium quantity of milk will rise, but we can’t determine how the equilibrium price will be affected.
D) )the equilibrium price of milk will rise, but we can’t determine how the equilibrium quantity will be affected.

Use the following to answer question 9:

Figure: DVD Market

9. (Figure: DVD Market) At a rental price of $3, there will be
A) equilibrium in the rental market for DVDs.
B) an increase in demand.
C) an excess supply of 40 DVD rentals.
D)an excess demand of 40 DVD rentals.

10. In the market for corn tortilla chips, what would cause a price increase?
A) Your doctor tells you that you cannot have junk food anymore.
B) There is a technological advancement in the tortilla chip production process.
C) There is a fungus that kills much of the corn crop in Nebraska.
D) The price of salsa triples.

11. Consumer surplus for an individual buyer is equal to:
A)the consumer’s willingness to pay for the good, minus the marginal cost of producing the good.
B)the price of the good, minus the marginal cost od producing the good.
C)the consumer’s willingness to pay for the good, minus the price of the good.
D)the marginal cost of the good, minus the consumer’s willingness to pay for the good.

12. Along a given demand curve, an increase in the price of a good will cause consumer surplus to:
A)increase.
B)decrease.
C)not change.
D)cannot be determined without information about the supply curve.

Use the following to answer questions 13-14:

Figure: Consumer Surplus II

13. (Figure: Consumer Surplus II) At a price of P1, consumer surplus equals the area:
A) ABP2
B) AFP1
C) BGF
D) P1P2BF

14. (Figure: Consumer Surplus II) If the price rises from P1 to P2, consumer surplus decreases by the area:
A) ABP2
B) AFP1
C) BGF
D) P1P2BF

15. The price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of the change in:
A)quantity demanded to a change in price.
B)price to a change in quantity demanded.
C)the slope of the demand curve to a change in price.
D)the slope of the demand curve to a change in quantity demanded.

16. Suppose the price elasticity of demand for cheeseburgers equals 0.37. This means the overall demand for cheeseburgers is:
A)price elastic.
B)price inelastic.
C)price unit-elastic.
D)perfectly price inelastic.

Use the following to answer question 17:

Figure: Consumer Surplus III

17. (Figure Consumer Surplus III) If the price of the good is $2, consumer surplus will equal:
A) $30.
B) $45.
C) $60.
D) $90.

18. Suppose at a price of $10 the quantity demanded is 100. When the price falls to $8, the quantity demanded increases to 130. The price elasticity of demand between the priced of $10 and $8, using the midpoint method, is approximately:
A) 1.17
B) 1.50
C) 0.85
D) 1.00

19. The publisher of an economics textbook finds that when the book’s price is lowered from $70 to $60, sales rise from 10,000 to 15,000. Using the midpoint method, you can calculate that the price elasticity of demand is:
A) 500
B) 50%
C) 3.5
D) 2.6
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20. If total revenue goes down when price falls, the price elasticity of demand is said to be:
A)price-inelastic
B)price unit-elastic
C)price-elastic
D)positive

21. To say that two goods are complements, their cross-price elasticity’s of demand should be:
A)less than 0
B)equal to 0
C)positive, yet almost equal to 0
D)greater than 0

22. A perfectly elastic supply curve is:
A)horizontal
B)downward-sloping
C)upward-sloping
D)vertical

23. The income elasticity of demand of a normal good is:
A)between 1 and 0
B)less than 0
C)equal to 0
D) greater than 0

24. To maximize her grade in economics, Stacey should study until:
A)her marginal cost of studying begins to increase.
B)her marginal benefit of studying begins to decrease.
C)her marginal benefit of studying equals her marginal cost of studying.
D)her marginal cost of studying reaches zero.

25. According to the optimal output rule, if marginal benefit:
A)exceeds marginal cost, an activity should be reduced.
B)is less than marginal cost, an activity should be reduced.
C)is equal to marginal cost, an activity should be reduced.
D)exceeds marginal cost, net benefit is maximized.

26. To maximize total net benefit, consumers and firms evaluate each activity at the:
A)average.
B)top.
C)margin.
D)end.
Use the following to answer question 27:

Figure: Marginal Cost Curve

27. (Figure: Marginal Cost Curve) Using the marginal cost curve in the figure provided, we can determine that the total cost of mowing five lawns is approximately:
A) $68.50
B) $100
C) $50
D) $10
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28. If the marginal benefit received from a good is greater than the marginal cost of production, then:
A)society’s well-being can be improved if production increases.
B)society’s well-being can be improved if production decreases.
C)society’s well-being cannot be improved by changing production.
D)the market is producing too much of the good.

Exam #3

1. The amount by which an additional unit of a good or service increases a consumer’s total utility, all other things unchanged, is:
A) marginal utility
B) maximum utility
C) average utility
D) required utility

2. The principle of diminishing marginal utility means that when Sarah eats pizza, her satisfaction from the second slice of pizza is probably:
A) greater than that from the first.
B) equal to that from the first.
C) less than that from the first.
D) not comparable to that of the first.

3. Assume that the marginal utilities for the first three units of a good consumed are 200,150, and 125, respectively. The total utility when two units are consumed is:
A) 150
B) 200
C) 350
D) 475

4. Suzy knows she has maximized her utility, because she is on her budget constraint and:
A) consumption of Good X equals consumption of God Y
B) what is sent on Good X equals what is spent on Good Y
C) MUx/Px = MUy/Py
D) MUx = MUy

5. Joesph consumes pizza and soda. He is currently consuming three units of pizza and two units of soda. The price of pizza is $5 and the price of soda is $1. If he is consuming the optimal consumption bundle and his marginal utility of pizza is 50, then his marginal utility of soda is:
A) 50
B) 10
C) 5
D) impossible to determine unless you know Joseph’s income.

6. While at the grocery store, Sidney sees that the price of Grape-Nuts is twice that of Cheerios. If Sidney buys both goods, then Sidney must:
A) get twice as much marginal utility from Grape-Nuts as from Cheerios.
B) get twice as much marginal utility from Cheerios as from Grape-Nuts.
C) not be maximizing her utility.
D) buy twice as much Cheerios.

Use the following to anser questions 7-8:

Figure: Budget Lines for Oranges and Apples

7. (Figure: Budget Lines for Oranges and Apples) For some time, Sylvester has had $5 per month to spend on oranges and apples. The price of an orange is $0.50 and the price of an apple is $.025. Which of the charts shows what will happen to his budget line if his income decreases to $2.50?
A) Chart A
B) Chart B
C) Chart C
D) Chart D

8. (Figure: Budget Lines for Oranges and Apples) For some time, Sylvester has had $5 per month to spend on oranges and apples. The price of an orange is $0.50 and the price of an apple is $.025. Which of the charts shows what will happen to his budget line if the price of an orange falls to $0.25?
A) Chart A
B) Chart B
C) Chart C
D) Chart D

Use the following to answer questions 9-10:

Table: Total Product and Marginal Product

9. (Table: Total Product and Marginal Product) The marginal product of the second worker is:
A) 10
B) 15
C) 20
D) 30

10. (Table: Total Product and Marginal Product) Negative marginal returns begin when the _______ worker is added.
A) fifth
B) sixth
C) seventh
D) eighth

11. A planning period during which all of a firm’s resources are variable is the:
A) long run
B) fixed run
C) short run
D) nominal run

Use the following to answer question 15:

Figure: Short-Run Costs

15. (Figure: Short-Run Costs) A is the _______ cost curve.
A) average total
B) average variable
C) marginal
D) total

16. If marginal cost is greater than average total cost, then:
A) average total cost is increasing.
B) average total cost is decreasing.
C) average total cost is unchanged.
D) marginal cost is decreasing.

17. A firm’s marginal cost is:
A) the ratio of the change in fixed cost to the change in the quantity of output.
B) the slope of the total cost curve.
C) the slope of the average variable cost curve.
D) the ratio of the change in total output to the change in the quantity of labor.

18. When an increase in the firm’s output reduces its long-run average total cost, it experiences:
A) economies of scale
B) diseconomies of scale
C) constant returns to scale
D) variable returns to scale

19. In the model of perfect competition:
A) the consumer is at the mercy of powerful firms that can set prices wherever they prefer.
B) individual firms can influence the price, but only slightly.
C) no individual or firm has enough power to have any impact on price.
D) the price is determined by how many years are left in the product’s patent.

Use the following to answer question 20:

Figure: Short-Run Costs

20. (Figure: Short-Run Costs) At the given price, the most profitable level of output occurs at quantity:
A) N
B) P
C) S
D) T

21. In perfect competition, the assumption of easy entry and exit implies that:
A) in the long run all firms in the industry will earn zero economic profits.
B) in the short run all firms in the industry will earn positive economic profits.
C) in the short run all firms in the industry will earn zero economic profits.
D) in the long run all firms in the industry will earn zero economic profits and in the short run all firms in the industry will earn positive economic profits.

22. If a perfectly competitive firm is producing a quantity that generates P > MC, then profit:
A) is maximized
B) can be decreased by increasing price.
C) can be increased by decreasing price.
D) can be increased by increasing production.

Use the following to answer question 23:

Figure: A Perfectly Competitive Firm in the Short Run

23. (Figure: A Perfectly Competitive Firm in the Short Run) The firm’s total economic profit at its most profitable level of output is:
A) 0GHB
B) EFJS
C) EGHS
D) FGLK

24. If it produces, a perfectly competitive firm will maximize profits by producing at the quantity at which:
A) marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
B) marginal revenue equals price.
C) price equals average total cost.
D) price exceeds marginal cost.

25. Compared to a perfectly competitive market, a monopolist will produce _______ and change a _______ price.
A) less; higher
B) less; lower
C) more; higher
D) more; lower

Use the following to answer question 26:

Figure: Monopoly Model

26 (Figure: Monopoly Model) The profit maximizing quantity is the one indicated by the distance:
A) W
B) J
C) K
D) L

27. A natural monopoly exists whenever a single firm:
A) is owned and operated by the federal or local government.
B) is invertor-owned but has been granted the exclusive right by the government to operate in a market.
C) experiences economics of scale over the entire range of production that is relevant to its market.
D)has gained control over a strategic input of an important production process.

28. Compared to perfect competition:
A)monopoly produces more at a lower price.
B)monopoly produces where MR > MC and a perfectly competitively firm produces where P = MC.
C)monopoly may have economic profits in the long run, but in perfect competition in the long run economic profits are zero.
D)perfect competition may have zero economic profits in the long run, but in monopoly the long run economic profits are zero.

Answer these questions in essay format, using the instructions provided in the Assignment Instructions folder. Review the Essay 3 Grading Rubric to see how your essay will be graded.

Each essay must be at least 2 pages—roughly half a page per question. Answer the questions using the concepts from the lessons and reading assignments. You may use any books, notes, or materials, but you must do the work alone. There is no need to retype the questions in your essay, but you should continually refer back to each to ensure that you stay on topic. APA format.

Discuss and contrast extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation. Give an example of each type of motivation from your personal experience.

2. Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Provide an example of a deficiency need overpowering the need for growth.

3. Attributions can be described in terms of Locus (“place”), temporal stability, and controllability. Give an example of a time you were not able to perform well on a difficult task (a race, a test, etc.). Analyze 2 attributions you made about the situation in terms of locus, stability, and controllability. Explain your answers.
4. List and define the 7 motivational strategies that are listed in the mnemonic TARGETS. Select 3 of these strategies and give an example of how a teacher would incorporate each into classroom practice to motivate s

My reference page is attached. References need to be listed in alphabetical order.
You will write a Research Paper that will compare Behavioral Learning Theories and Cognitive Learning Theories. You will include a title page, a 150–250-word abstract, an 8-page body, and a reference page. The body will include an introduction, 6 sections, and a conclusion. The paper must be written in current APA format. Current APA Level 1 sub-headings must be used throughout the paper. The 6 main sections of the paper will address the following topics:

1. Historical Development of Each Theory—For each theory, discuss prominent persons and their corresponding historic research. Include how the theory has been developed over time. Have there been significant changes from its development to what current researchers in the area believe?

2. Key Concepts of Each Theory—This section will focus on the major points of each theory. How is new information acquired? What are the goals of learning? What is unique about each theory?

3. Research Support for Each Theory—This section will include a review of 4 peer-reviewed scholarly research articles. The first 2 articles will address research in which Behavior Learning Theory has been applied. The other 2 articles will use Cognitive Learning Theory in the research. Each article must show the effectiveness of the learning theory it addresses.

4. Educational Implications—This section will discuss the implications for how learning takes place in the classroom. Discuss the benefits and applications of each theory. How would each theory say people learn in a classroom setting? What are the benefits to teaching new information utilizing each theory?

5. Biblical Worldview—Discuss what the Bible says regarding learning behavior in humans. How would a biblical worldview impact a learner? Include chapter and verse when citing the Bible.

6. Most Effective Theory of Learning—Select which theory of learning (Behavioral or Cognitive) you believe is most effective. Substantiate your decision with research support citing journal articles and your textbook.

Reference Requirements

Required sources for this paper include the Bible, your textbook, 4 peer-reviewed journal articles, and at least 2 additional scholarly sources. Remaining sources must address educational implications, historical context, and/or biblical worldview topics related to Behavioral and Cognitive Learning Theories. At least 4 of the sources (the peer-reviewed journal articles) must have been published within the last 10 years. Popular writing and web pages are NOT acceptable sources for this paper. Refer to the provided grading rubric to fully understand the requirements for this assignment.
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Behavioral and Cognitive Learning Theories

Liberty University
Behavioral and Cognitive Learning Theories
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Answer these questions in essay format, using the instructions provided in the Assignment Instructions folder. Review the Essay 2 Grading Rubric to see how your essay will be graded.

**************Make sure to include all labels, as per the instructions.) Each response should be about a half-page in length*****************************

1. Think of a class outside of your major. Using the Gestalt principle, “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts,” describe your preconceived perception of the class, 3 details that you now know are different from that initial perception, and your continuing perception in spite of the details.

2. In church and in other settings, announcements are made that affect you. Label and describe 4 techniques covered in the textbook which the speaker could use to keep your attention.

3. You have gone through stages of Piaget’s cognitive development, in your professional beliefs and in your theological beliefs. Name and trace the development of any 1 of your beliefs through all 4 stages. Give at least 1 specific characteristic for each stage and use terms from Piaget’s theory. Though you may not remember your cognitive development at every stage, trace what must have happened to you in each stage to allow your current functioning. In relation to this belief, what is the best stage for you to be in now, and why?

4. Think of classes in your major. Name 3 concepts from Vygotsky’s theory and provide examples of how they could help to boost your zone of proximal development (ZPD) for learning in those classes.

This assignment is due by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Monday of Module/Week 6.
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NSG6005 Final Exam South University | Complete Solution

An ACE inhibitor and what other class of drug may reduce proteinuria in patients with diabetes better than either drug alone?

A. Beta blockers
B. Diuretics
C. Nondihydropyridine calcium channel blockers
D. Angiotensin II receptor blockers

Adam has type I diabetes and plays tennis for his university. He exhibits knowledge deficit about his insulin and his diagnosis. He should be taught that:

A. He should increase his increase his carbohydrate intake during times of exercise intake during times of exercise.
B. Each brand of insulin is equal in bioavailability, so buy the least expensive.
C. Alcohol produces hypoglycemia and can help control his diabetes when taken in small amounts.
D. If he does not want to learn to give himself injections, he may substitute an oral hypoglycemic to control his diabetes.
Age is a factor in different responses to pain. Which of the following age-related statements about pain is not true?

A. Preterm and newborn infants do not yet have functional pain pathways.
B. Painful experiences and prolonged exposure to analgesic drugs during pregnancy may permanently alter neuronal organization in the child.
C. Increases in pain threshold in older adults may be related to peripheral neuropathies and changes in skin thickness.
D. Decreases in pain tolerance are evident in older adults.
Alterations in drug metabolism among Asians may lead to:

A. Slower metabolism of antidepressants, requiring lower doses
B. Faster metabolism of neuroleptics, requiring higher doses
C. Altered metabolism of omeprazole, requiring higher doses
D. Slower metabolism of alcohol, requiring higher doses

Amiodarone has been prescribed in a patient with a supraventricular dysrhythmia. Patient teaching should include all of the following except:

A. Notify your healthcare provider immediately if you have visual change.
B. Monitor your own blood pressure and pulse daily.
C. Take a hot shower or bath if you feel dizzy.
D. Use a sunscreen on exposed body surfaces.
Anticholinergic agents, such as benztropine (Cogentin), may be given with a phenothiazine to:

A. Reduce the chance of tardive dyskinesia.
B. Potentiate the effects of the drug.
C. Reduce the tolerance that tends to occur.
D. Increase CNS depression.
An appropriate drug for the treatment of depression with anxiety would be:

A. Alprazolam (Xanax)
B. Escitalopram (Lexapro)
C. Buspirone (Buspar)
D. Amitriptyline (Elavil)
Cara is taking levetiracetam (Keppra) to treat seizures. Routine education for levetiracetam includes reminding her:

A. To not abruptly discontinue levetiracetam due to the risk of withdrawal seizures
B. To wear a sunscreen due to photosensitivity from levetiracetam
C. To get an annual eye exam while on levetiracetam
D. To report weight loss if it occurs
Cecilia presents with depression associated with complaints of fatigue, sleeping all the time, and lack of motivation. An appropriate initial antidepressant for her would be:

A. Fluoxetine (Prozac)
B. Paroxetine (Paxil)
C. Amitriptyline (Elavil)
D. Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
Chemical dependency assessment is integral to the initial assessment of chronic pain. Which of the following raises a “red flag” about potential chemical dependency?

A. Use of more than one drug to treat the pain
B. Multiple times when prescriptions are lost with requests to refill
C. Preferences for treatments that include alternative medicines
D. Presence of a family member who has abused drugs
Common mistakes practitioners make in treating anxiety disorders include:

A. Switching medications after an eight-week trial to a twelve-week trial
B. Maximizing dosing of antianxiety medications
C. Encouraging exercise and relaxation therapy before starting medication
D. Thinking a partial response to medication is acceptable
David presents to clinic with symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis. He is prescribed cromolyn sodium (Opticrom) eyedrops. The education regarding using cromolyn eyedrops includes which one of the following tips?
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A. He should not wear his soft contacts while using the cromolyn eyedrops.
B. Cromolyn drops are instilled once a day to prevent allergy symptoms.
C. Long-term use of the eyedrop may cause glaucoma.
D. He may experience bradycardia as an adverse effect.
The DEA:

A. Registers manufacturers and prescribes controlled substances
B. Regulates NP prescribing at the state level
C. Sanctions providers who prescribe drugs off-label
D. Provides prescribers with a number they can use for insurance billing
Diagnostic criteria for diabetes include:

A. Fasting blood glucose greater than 140 mg/dl on two occasions
B. Postprandial blood glucose greater than 140 mg/dl
C. Fasting blood glucose 100 to 125 mg/dl on two occasions
D. Symptoms of diabetes plus a casual blood glucose greater than 200 mg/dl
Disease states in addition to hypertension in which beta blockade is a compelling indication for the use of beta blockers include:

A. Heart failure
B. Angina
C. MI
D. Dyslipidemia
The drug of choice for type II diabetics is metformin. Metformin:

A. Decreases glycogenolysis by the liver
B. Increases the release of insulin from beta cells
C. Increases intestinal uptake of glucose
D. Prevents weight gain associated with hyperglycemia
The drug recommended as primary prevention of osteoporosis in men over seventy years is:

A. Alendronate (Fosamax)
B. Ibandronate (Boniva)
C. Calcium carbonate
D. Raloxifene (Evista)

The drug recommended as primary prevention of osteoporosis in women over seventy years old is:

A. Alendronate (Fosamax)
B. Ibandronate (Boniva)
C. Calcium carbonate
D. Raloxifene (Evista)
The drugs recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics for use in children with diabetes (depending upon type of diabetes) are:

A. Metformin and insulin
B. Sulfonylureas and insulin glargine
C. Split-mixed dose insulin and GLP-1 agonists
D. Biguanides and insulin lispro
Drugs that have a significant first-pass effect:

A. Must be given by the enteral (oral) route only
B. Bypass the hepatic circulation
C. Are rapidly metabolized by the liver and may have little if any desired action
D. Are converted by the liver to more active and fat-soluble forms
Dwayne has classic tinea capitis. Treatment for tinea on the scalp is:

A. Rubbing in miconazole cream well for four weeks
B. Intake of oral griseofulvin for six to eight weeks
C. Shampooing with ketoconazole shampoo daily for six weeks
D. Using ciclopirox cream daily for four weeks
Dwayne was recently started on carbamazepine to treat seizures. He comes to see you, and you note that while his carbamazepine levels had been in the therapeutic range, they are now low. The possible cause for the low carbamazepine levels is:

A. Dwayne hasn’t been taking his carbamazepine because it causes insomnia.
B. Carbamazepine auto-induces metabolism, leading to lower levels in spite of good compliance.
C. Dwayne was not originally prescribed the correct amount of carbamazepine.
D. Carbamazepine is probably not the right antiseizure medication for Dwayne.
Erik presents with a golden-crusted lesion at the site of an insect bite consistent with impetigo. His parents have limited finances and request the least expensive treatment. Which medication would be the best choice for treatment?

A. Mupirocin (Bactroban)
B. Bacitracin and polymixin B (generic double antibiotic ointment)
C. Retapamulin (Altabax)
D. Oral cephalexin (Keflex)
First-line therapy for hyperlipidemia is:

A. Statins
B. Niacin
C. Lifestyle changes
D. Bile acid-binding resins
First-line therapy for treating topical fungal infections such as tinea corporis (ringworm) or tinea pedis (athlete’s foot) would be:

A. OTC topical azole (clotrimazole, miconazole)
B. Oral terbinafine
C. Oral griseofulvin microsize
D. Nystatin cream or ointment
Furosemide is added to a treatment regimen for heart failure, which includes digoxin. Monitoring for this combination includes:

A. Hemoglobin
B. Serum potassium
C. Blood urea nitrogen
D. Serum glucose
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Genetic polymorphisms account for differences in metabolism, including:

A. Poor metabolizers (PMs) that lack a working enzyme
B. Intermediate metabolizers (IMs) that have one working, wild-type allele and one mutant allele
C. Extensive metabolizers (EMs), with two normally functioning alleles
D. All of the above
Genetic testing for VCORC1 mutation to assess potential warfarin resistance is required prior to prescribing warfarin.

A. True
B. False
Goals of treatment when treating hypothyroidism with thyroid replacement include:

A. Normal TSH and free T4 levels
B. Resolution of fatigue
C. Weight loss to baseline
D. All of the above

Heart failure is a chronic condition that can be adequately managed in primary care. However, consultation with or referral to a cardiologist is appropriate when:

A. Symptoms markedly worsen or the patient becomes hypotensive and has syncope.
B. There is evidence of progressive renal insufficiency or failure.
C. The patient remains symptomatic on optimal doses of an ACE inhibitor, a beta blocker, and a diuretic.
D. All the above options are correct.
Hypoglycemia can result from the action of either insulin or an oral hypoglycemic. Signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia include:

A. “Fruity” breath odor and rapid respiration
B. Diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and hypertension
C. Dizziness, confusion, diaphoresis, and tachycardia
D. Easy bruising, palpitations, cardiac dysrhythmias, and coma
If a patient with H. pylori positive PUD fails first-line therapy, the second-line treatment is:

A. A PPI BID plus metronidazole plus tetracycline plus bismuth subsalicylate for fourteen days
B. Testing H. pylori for resistance to common treatment regimens
C. A PPI plus clarithromycin plus amoxicillin for fourteen days
D. A PPI and levofloxacin for fourteen days
In addition to methimazole, a symptomatic patient with hyperthyroidism may need a prescription for:

A. A calcium channel blocker
B. A beta blocker
C. Liothyronine
D. An alpha blocker
Inadequate vitamin D intake can contribute to the development of osteoporosis by:

A. Increasing calcitonin production
B. Increasing calcium absorption from the intestine
C. Altering calcium metabolism
D. Stimulating bone formation
Incorporating IT into a patient encounter takes skill and tact. During the encounter, the provider can make the patient more comfortable with the IT the provider is using by:

A. Turning the screen around so the patient can see material being recorded
B. Not placing the computer screen between the provider and the patient
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B
Infants with reflux are initially treated with:

A. Histamine 2 receptor antagonist (ranitidine)
B. A PPI (omeprazole)
C. Antireflux maneuvers (elevate the head of the bed)
D. Prokinetic (metoclopramide)
In five- to eleven-year-old children, mild-persistent asthma is diagnosed when asthma symptoms occur:

A. At nighttime one to two times a month
B. At nighttime three to four times a month
C. Less than twice a week
D. Daily
Jack, eight years old, has attention deficit disorder (ADD) and is prescribed methylphenidate (Ritalin). He and his parents should be educated about the side effects of methylphenidate, which are:

A. Slurred speech and insomnia
B. Bradycardia and confusion
C. Dizziness and orthostatic hypotension
D. Insomnia and decreased appetite
Janie presents to clinic with hard ear wax in both ear canals. Instructions regarding home removal of hard cerumen includes:

A. Moistening a cotton swab (Q-tip) and swabbing the ear canals twice daily
B. Instilling tap water in both ears while bathing
C. Squirting hydrogen peroxide into ears with each bath
D. Instilling carbamide peroxide (Debrox) twice daily until the ear canals are clear
Jim presents with complaints of “heart burn” that is minimally relieved with Tums (calcium carbonate) and is diagnosed with GERD. An appropriate first step therapy would be:

A. Omeprazole (Prilosec) twice a day
B. Ranitidine (Zantac) twice a day
C. Famotidine (Pepcid) once a day
D. Metoclopramide (Reglan) four times a day
Jim presents with fungal infection of two of his toenails (onychomycosis). Treatment for fungal infections of the nail includes:

A. Miconazole cream
B. Ketoconazole cream
C. Oral griseofulvin
D. Mupirocin cream
Josie is a five-year-old who presents to the clinic with a forty-eight-hour history of nausea, vomiting, and some diarrhea. She is unable to keep fluids down, and her weight is 4 pounds less than her last recorded weight. Besides intravenous (IV) fluids, her exam warrants the use of an antinausea medication. Which of the following would be the appropriate drug to order for Josie?
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A. Prochlorperazine (Compazine)
B. Meclizine (Antivert)
C. Promethazine (Phenergan)
D. Ondansetron (Zofran)

Kirk sprained his ankle and is asking for pain medication for his mild-to-moderate pain. The appropriate first-line medication would be __________.

A. ibuprofen (Advil)
B. acetaminophen with hydrocodone (Vicodin)
C. oxycodone (OxyContin)
D. oral morphine (Roxanol)

Liza is breastfeeding her two-month-old son, and she has an infection that requires an antibiotic. What drug factors influence the effect of the drug on the infant?

A. Maternal drug levels
B. Half-life
C. Lipid solubility
D. All of the above
Long-acting beta-agonists received a black box warning from the US Food and Drug Administration due to the:

A. Risk of life-threatening dermatological reactions
B. Increased incidence of cardiac events when long-acting beta-agonists are used
C. Increased risk of asthma-related deaths when long-acting beta-agonists are used
D. Risk for life-threatening alterations in electrolytes
Long-term treatment of moderate atopic dermatitis includes:

A. Topical corticosteroids and emollients
B. Topical corticosteroids alone
C. Topical antipruritics
D. Oral corticosteroids for exacerbations of atopic dermatitis
Medications used in the management of patients with COPD include:

A. Inhaled beta 2 agonists
B. Inhaled anticholinergics (ipratropium)
C. Inhaled corticosteroids
D. All of the above
Monitoring for a child on methylphenidate for ADHD includes:

A. ADHD symptoms
B. Routine height and weight checks
C. Amount of methylphenidate being used
D. All of the above
Narcotics are exogenous opiates. They act by ______.

A. inhibiting pain transmission in the spinal cord
B. attaching to receptors in the afferent neuron to inhibit the release of substance P
C. blocking neurotransmitters in the midbrain
D. increasing beta-lipoprotein excretion from the pituitary
A nineteen-year-old male was started on risperidone. Monitoring for risperidone includes observing for common side effects, including:

A. Bradykinesia, akathisia, and agitation
B. Excessive weight gain
C. Hypertension
D. Potentially fatal agranulocytosis
Nonadherence is especially common in drugs that treat asymptomatic conditions, such as hypertension. One way to reduce the likelihood of nonadherence to these drugs is to prescribe a drug that:
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A. Has a short half-life so that missing one dose has limited effect
B. Requires several dosage titrations so that missed doses can be replaced with lower doses to keep costs down
C. Has a tolerability profile with less of the adverse effects that are considered “irritating,” such as nausea and dizziness
D. Must be taken no more than twice a day
Off-Label prescribing is:

A. Regulated by the FDA
B. Illegal by NPs in all states (provinces)
C. Legal if there is scientific evidence for the use
D. Regulated by the DEA
One goal of asthma management in children is:

A. They should independently manage their asthma.
B. They should participate in school and sports activities.
C. There should be no exacerbations.
D. The use of inhaled corticosteroids should be minimal.
The ongoing monitoring of patients over the age sixty-five years taking alendronate (Fosamax) or any other bisphosphonate is:

A. Annual dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans
B. Annual vitamin D level
C. Annual renal function evaluation
D. Electrolytes every three month
A patient has been prescribed silver sulfadiazine (Silvadene) cream to treat burns on his or her leg. Normal adverse effects of silver sulfadiazine cream include:

A. Transient leukopenia on days two to four that should resolve
B. Worsening of burn symptoms briefly before resolution
C. A red, scaly rash that will resolve with continued use
D. Hypercalcemia
Patients who are on or who will be starting chronic corticosteroid therapy need monitoring of __________.

A. serum glucose
B. stool culture
C. folate levels
D. vitamin B12
Patients who have angina, regardless of class, who are also diabetic should be on:

A. Nitrates
B. Beta blockers
C. ACE inhibitors
D. Calcium channel blockers
Patients with psychiatric illnesses have adherence rates to their drug regimen between 35% and 60%. To improve adherence in this population, prescribe drugs:
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A. With a longer half-life so that missed doses produce a longer taper on the drug curve
B. In oral formulations that are more easily taken
C. That do not require frequent monitoring
D. Combined with patient education about the need to adhere even when symptoms are absent
A patient with a COPD exacerbation may require:

A. Doubling of inhaled corticosteroid dose
B. Systemic corticosteroid burst
C. Continuous inhaled beta 2 agonists
D. Leukotriene therapy
Pharmacokinetics among Asians are universal to all the Asian ethnic groups.

A. True
B. False
A potentially life-threatening adverse response to ACE inhibitors is angioedema. Which of the following statements is true about this adverse response?

A. Swelling of the tongue and hoarseness are the most common symptoms.
B. It appears to be related to a decrease in aldosterone production.
C. The presence of a dry, hacky cough indicates a high risk for this adverse response.
D. Because it takes time to build up a blood level, it occurs after being on the drug for about one week.
Prescribing for women during their childbearing years requires constant awareness of the possibility of:

A. Pregnancy unless the women is on birth control
B. Risk for silent bacterial or viral infections of the genitalia
C. High risk for developmental disorders in their infants
D. Decreased risk for abuse during this time
Prior to prescribing metformin, the provider should:

A. Draw a serum creatinine to assess renal function.
B. Try the patient on insulin.
C. Tell the patient to increase iodine intake.
D. Have the patient stop taking any sulfonylurea to avoid dangerous drug interactions.
Progesterone-only pills are recommended for women who:

A. Are breastfeeding
B. Have a history of migraine
C. Have a medical history that contradicts the use of estrogen
D. All of the above
Sadie is a seventy-two-year-old who takes omeprazole for her chronic GERD. Chronic long-term omeprazole use places her at increased risk for:

A Megaloblastic anemia
B. Osteoporosis
C. Hypertension
D. Strokes
Sarah, a forty-two-year-old female, requests a prescription for an anorexiant to treat her obesity. A trial of phentermine is prescribed. Prescribing precautions include understanding that:

A. Obesity is a contraindication to prescribing phentermine.
B. Anorexiants may cause tolerance and should only be prescribed for six months.
C. Patients should be monitored for postural hypotension.
D. Renal function should be monitored closely while the patient is on anorexiants.
Scott is presenting for follow-up on his lipid panel. He had elevated total cholesterol, elevated triglycerides, and an LDL of 122 mg/dL. He has already implemented diet changes and increased physical activity. He has mildly elevated liver studies. An appropriate next step for therapy would be:

A. Atorvastatin (Lipitor)
B. Niacin (Niaspan)
C. Simvastatin and ezetimibe (Vytorin)
D. Gemfibrozil (Lopid)
Second-generation antihistamines such as loratadine (Claritin) are prescribed for seasonal allergies because they:

A. Are more effective than first-generation antihistamines
B. Are less sedating than first-generation antihistamines
C. Are prescription products and, therefore, are covered by insurance
D. Can be taken with CNS sedatives, such as alcohol
Severe contact dermatitis caused by poison ivy or poison oak exposure often requires treatment with:

A. Topical antipruritics
B. Oral corticosteroids for two to three weeks
C. Thickly applied topical intermediate-dose corticosteroids
D. Isolation of the patient to prevent spread of the dermatitis
Sitagliptin has been approved for:

A. Monotherapy in once-daily doses
B. Combination therapy with metformin
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B
A sixty-six-year-old male was prescribed phenelzine (Nardil) while in an acute psychiatric unit for recalcitrant depression. The nurse practitioner managing his primary healthcare needs to understand the following regarding phenelzine and other monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs):

A. He should not be prescribed any serotonergic drug such as sumatriptan (Imitrex).
B. MAOIs interact with many common foods, including yogurt, sour cream, and soy sauce.
C. Symptoms of hypertensive crisis (headache, tachycardia, sweating, etc.) require immediate treatment.
D. All the above options are correct.

Six-year-old Lucy has recently been started on ethosuximide (Zarontin) for seizures. She should be monitored for:

A. Increased seizure activity as this drug may auto-induce seizures
B. Altered renal function, including renal failure
C. Blood dyscrasias, which are uncommon but possible
D. CNS excitement, leading to insomnia

Stage C patients usually require a combination of three to four drugs to manage their heart failure. In addition to ACE inhibitors and beta blockers, diuretics may be added. Which of the following statements about diuretics is not true?

A. Diuretics reduce preload associated with fluid retention.
B. Diuretics can be used earlier than Stage C when the goal is control of hypertension.
C. Diuretics may produce problems with electrolyte imbalances and abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism.
D. Diuretics from the potassium-sparing class should be used when using an ARB.
A stepwise approach to the pharmacologic management of asthma:

A. Begins with determining the severity of the asthma and assessing asthma control
B. Is used when the asthma is severe and requires daily steroids
C. Allows for each provider to determine his or her personal approach to the care of asthmatic patients
D. Provides a framework for the management of severe asthmatics but is not as helpful when patients have intermittent asthma
Studies have shown that control targets that reduce the hemoglobin A1c to less than 7% are associated with fewer long-term complications of diabetes. Patients who should have such a target include:

A. Those with long-standing diabetes
B. Older adults
C. Those with no significant cardiovascular disease
D. Young children who are early in their disease
Tiotropium bromide (Spiriva) is an inhaled anticholinergic:

A. Used for the treatment of COPD
B. Used in the treatment of asthma
C. Combined with albuterol for the treatment of asthma exacerbations
D. Combined with fluticasone for the treatment of persistent asthma
To reduce mortality, all patients with angina, regardless of class, should be on:

A. Aspirin 81 to 325 mg/d
B. Nitroglycerin sublingually for chest pain
C. ACE inhibitors or ARBs
D. Digoxin
The treatment for vitamin B12 deficiency is:

A. 1,000 mcg daily of oral cobalamin
B. 2 gm/day of oral cobalamin
C. 100 mcg/day vitamin B12 IM
D. 500 mcg/dose nasal cyanocobalamin two sprays once a week
Treatment of a patient with hypothyroidism and cardiovascular disease consists of:

A. Levothyroxine
B. Liothyronine
C. Liotrix
D. Methimazole
The trial period to determine effective anti-inflammatory activity when starting a patient on aspirin for RA is _____.

A. forty-eight hours
B. four to six days
C. four weeks
D. two months
A twenty-four-year-old male received multiple fractures in a motor vehicle accident that required significant amounts of opioid medication to treat his pain. He is at risk for Type __ ADR when he no longer requires the opioids.

A. A
B. C
C. E
D. G

The type of ADR that is the result of an unwanted but otherwise normal pharmacological action of a drug given in the usual therapeutic doses is:

A. Type A
B. Type B
C. Type C
D. Type D
Unlike most type II diabetics where obesity is a major issue, older adults with low body weight have higher risks for morbidity and mortality. The most reliable indicator of poor nutritional status in older adults is:

A. Weight loss in previously overweight persons
B. Involuntary loss of 10% of body weight in less than six months
C. Decline in lean body mass over a twelve-month period
D. Increase in central versus peripheral body adiposity
Vicky, age fifty-six years, comes to clinic requesting a refill of her Fiorinal (aspirin and butalbital) that she takes for migraines. She has been taking this medication for over two years for migraine and states one dose usually works to abort her migraine. What is the best care for her?

A. Switch her to sumatriptan (Imitrex) to treat her migraines.
B. Assess how often she is using Fiorinal and refill medication.
C. Switch her to a beta-blocker such as propranolol to prevent her migraine.
D. Request her to return to the original prescriber of Fiorinal as you do not prescribe butalbital for migraines
Warfarin resistance may be seen in patients with VCORC1 mutation, leading to:

A. Toxic levels of warfarin building up
B. Decreased response to warfarin
C. Increased risk for significant drug interactions with warfarin
D. Less risk of drug interactions with warfarin
What impact does developmental variation in renal function has on prescribing for infants and children?

A. Lower doses of renally excreted drugs may be prescribed to infants younger than six months
B. Higher doses of water-soluble drugs may need to be prescribed due to increased renal excretion
C. Renal excretion rates have no impact on prescribing
D. Parents need to be instructed on whether drugs are renally excreted or not
When a patient is on selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors:

A. The complete blood count must be monitored every three to four months
B. Therapeutic blood levels must be monitored every six months after a steady state is achieved.
C. Blood glucose must be monitored every three to four months.
D. There is no laboratory monitoring required.
When obtaining a drug history from Harold, he gives you a complete list of his prescription medications. He denies taking any other drugs, but you find that he occasionally takes aspirin for his arthritis flare-ups. This is an example of:

A. His appropriately only telling you about his regularly prescribed medications
B. His hiding information regarding his inappropriate use of aspirin from you
C. A common misconception that intermittently taken OTC medications are not an important part of his drug history
D. A common misuse of OTC aspirin
When prescribing any headache therapy, appropriate use of medications needs to be discussed to prevent medication-overuse headaches. The clinical characteristics of medication-overuse headaches include ________.

A. headaches increasing in frequency
B. headaches increasing in intensity
C. headaches recurring when medication wears off
D. headaches beginning to “cluster” into a pattern
When Sam used clotrimazole (Lotrimin AF) for athlete’s foot, he developed a red, itchy rash consistent with a hypersensitivity reaction. He now has athlete’s foot again. What would be a good choice of antifungal for Sam?

A. Miconazole (Micatin) powder
B. Ketoconazole (Nizoral) cream
C. Terbinafine (Lamisil) cream
D. Griseofulvin (Grifulvin V) suspension
When starting a patient with hypothyroidism on thyroid replacement hormones, patient education would include the following:

A. He or she should feel symptomatic improvement in one to two weeks.
B. Drug-related adverse effects such as lethargy and dry skin may occur.
C. It may take four to eight weeks to get to euthyroid symptomatically and by lab testing.
D. Due to the short half-life of levothyroxine, its doses should not be missed.
Which of the following adverse effects may occur due to a dihydropyridine-type calcium channel blocker?

A. Bradycardia
B. Hepatic impairment
C. Increased contractility
D. Edema of the hands and feet
Which of the following classes of drugs is contraindicated in heart failure?

A. Nitrates
B. Long-acting dihydropyridines
C. Calcium channel blockers
D. Alpha-beta blockers
Which of the following disease processes could be made worse by taking a nonselective beta blocker?

A. Asthma might worsen.
B. Diabetes might worsen.
C. Both might worsen.
D. Beta blockade does not affect these disorders.
Which of the following factors may adversely affect a patient’s adherence to a therapeutic drug regimen?

A. Complexity of the drug regimen
B. Patient’s perception of the potential adverse effects of the drugs
C. Both A and B
D. Neither A nor B
Which of the following is the goal of treatment of acute pain?

A. Pain at a tolerable level where patient may return to activities of daily living
B. Reduction of pain with a minimum of drug adverse effects
C. Reduction or elimination of pain with minimum adverse reactions
D. Adequate pain relief without constipation or nausea from the drugs
Which of the following is the mechanism of action of oral combined contraceptives that prevent pregnancy?

A. Estrogen prevents the LH surge necessary for ovulation.
B. Progestins thicken cervical mucous and slow tubal motility.
C. Estrogen thins the endometrium, making implantation difficult.
D. Progestin suppresses FSH release.
Which of the following statements is true about age and pain?

A. Use of drugs that depend heavily on the renal system for excretion may require dosage adjustments in very young children.
B. Among the NSAIDs, indomethacin is the preferred drug because of lower adverse effects profiles than other NSAIDs.
C. Older adults who have dementia probably do not experience much pain due to loss of pain receptors in the brain.
D. Acetaminophen is especially useful in both children and adults because it has no effect on platelets and has fewer adverse effects than NSAIDs.

A woman who has migraine with aura:

A. Should not be prescribed estrogen due to the interaction between triptans and estrogen, limiting migraine therapy choices
B. Should not be prescribed estrogen due to an increased incidence of migraines with the use of estrogen
C. Should not be prescribed estrogen due to an increased risk of stroke occurring with estrogen use
D. May be prescribed estrogen without any concerns
A woman with an intact uterus should not be prescribed:

A. Estrogen/progesterone combination
B. Intramuscular (IM) medroxyprogesterone (Depo Provera)
C. Estrogen alone
D. Androgens
Question 22: Education

W3 Lab Prohibited Use
Overview:

You are the Information Security Officer of Mahtmarg Manufacturing a small manufacturing company worth approximately $5 Million who provides fiber

W3 Lab: “Prohibited Use”
Overview:

You are the Information Security Officer of Mahtmarg Manufacturing a small manufacturing company worth approximately $5 Million who provides fiber cable to local businesses, individual customers and to government organizations. In the course of the next eight weeks you will be creating your Information Security Plan (Issue-Specific Security Policy in Table 4-3 of the textbook) step by step using this scenario.
Your Task

Step 3: Develop the Prohibited Use section of your ISP
In this week’s Lab you will develop the section on Prohibited Use of your company’s information system (IS) in the Information Security Plan to include:
Prohibition of illegal conduct
System and Network Activity restrictions
Copyright infringement
Proprietary information disclosure
Unauthorized use for personal business
Malicious programs
Account disclosure
Email and Communication Activity restrictions
Unsolicited emails
Harassment
Chain letters
Spam
Blogging and Social Media Activity restrictions
Representation of the company on blogs or social media
Separation of personal and professional comments

Section 3: Diversity Self-Reflection (3–4 pages)
Write a self-reflection paper that addresses the final two Walden Diversity Dispositions:
·         Awareness of Self
·         Professional Practice
Also, reference the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards, what you learned from the working with the Case Study of Jamal from the Grand City Community (West Ridge Middle School) , and Walden’s Mission and Vision Statement to help support your reflection.
·         Reflection Component 1: Using the bulleted points on Walden’s Diversity Proficiencies, personally reflect on your knowledge and skills for the “Awareness of Self” and “Professional Practice” indicators. Cite at least one relevant, research-based reading or media element to support this component.
·         Reflection Component 2: Connect your personal reflection, to course content, including the Case Study, CEC standards, and Walden’s mission for Social Change. Cite at least one relevant, research-based reading or media element to support each of these components.
Your final document must include the following:
·         Title Page
·         Section1: 2–3 pages
·         Section 2: 3–4 pages
·         Reference pages
Note: For this Assignment and all scholarly writing in this course and throughout your program, you will be required to use APA style (6th edition). Please use the Walden Writing Center as a resource as you complete assignments.
Required Readings
Council for Exceptional Children. (2012). CEC special education specialist advanced preparation standards. Retrieved from https://www.cec.sped.org/~/media/Files/Standards/Professional%20Preparation%20Standards/Advanced%20Preparation%20Standards%20with%20Elaborations.pdf
DeMatthews, D. (2014). Deconstructing systems of segregation: Leadership challenges in an urban school. Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership, 17(1), 17–31
Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.
This article gives a case study of a principal in an urban school who was charged with a directive to raise test scores and increase inclusion in a building with a history of segregation.
Document: Assessment of Diversity Proficiencies Guidelines (PDF)
Document: SMART Goals Graphic (PDF)
Document: Walden Diversity Proficiencies (PDF)
Document: Walden Professional Dispositions (PDF)
Walden University (2015). Social change. Retrieved from http://www.waldenu.edu/about/social-change
Media
Grand City Community
·         Laureate Education (Producer). (2012b). The teacher’s lounge [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.
Go to the Grand City Community and click into West Ridge Middle School. Review the following scenario: The Teacher’s Lounge.

Question 24: Health Care

Walden University NURSING 6650 final exam
Question 1
1 out of 1 points
In a group therapy session for adolescents, a 15-year-old patient says he has trouble making conversation with people he does not know well. Based on the principle of development of socializing techniques, what explicit approach might the PMHNP take?
·         Question 2
1 out of 1 points
One group member is identified by the PMHNP as the monopolist of the group. Which behavior does the PMHNP believe this member is most likely to display?
·         Question 3
1 out of 1 points
During a first group therapy session, a member is outgoing and participates actively. Based on this information, what is an appropriate prediction about this group member by the PMHNP?
·         Question 4
1 out of 1 points
A 21-year-old client with narcissistic traits is noted to continuously disrupt the group by speaking while others are speaking. It becomes evident that the client is purposely disrupting the group and decreasing the group’s productivity. What does the PMHNP identify as a cause of the client’s behavior?
·         Question 5
1 out of 1 points
Harold Wyman is a 74-year-old man who is trying to mend a relationship with his adult daughter. Based on his intake assessment, the PMHNP believes that the father has depression. The daughter and Harold meet with the PMNHP, and the daughter explains that her father always appears mopey and withdrawn and refuses to do anything about it. When asked, the father reports feeling sad all the time. Which action will the PMNHP employ with Harold using the interpersonal psychotherapy approach throughout the various sessions?
·         Question 6
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is leading a group therapy session for patients with substance abuse problems. After a productive session in which all members participated, the following week was not as productive. In order to help the group members assume responsibility for evaluating the meeting, what is an appropriate comment for the PMHNP to make?
·         Question 7
1 out of 1 points
During the “mid-group debrief” the clinical supervisor focused on the following areas with the two counselors except:
·         Question 8
1 out of 1 points
The social microcosm theory is a theory that relates to group composition. In accordance with this theory, the PMHNP is aware that the group must consist of which of the following?
·         Question 9
0 out of 1 points
Peter, a successful businessman, is introduced to the group during the twelfth week. Following Peter’s introduction, Joseph, a long-term member in the group, begins to lead the group and discuss all of the things that he has personally accomplished. In what way does the PMHNP correctly interpret Joseph’s behavior?
·         Question 10
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP conducts a specialized individual interview with a patient named Sandy. During this interview, Sandy expresses her want of the other members to like her, and she has a deep dread for the first group meeting. How does the PMHNP correctly interpret Sandy’s interpersonal circumplex?
·         Question 11
1 out of 1 points
When discussing the role of the consultant in the parenting group session, Dr. Carlson explains that the consultant should use several skills in order to help keep the group going and should enable group members to become very engaged with one another. The consultant should use all of the following skills to achieve this, except:
·         Question 12
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is meeting with parents and their 10-year-old child. The child is having trouble paying attention at school and has been getting easily frustrated at home when doing homework, which often results in everyone arguing. What step might the PMHNP take as part of a family-centered, solution-oriented approach?
·         Question 13
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP is meeting with an adult woman and her father, who is 85 years old. The father stays quiet most of the session. The daughter explains he is mad at her for “bringing him to a see a shrink.” The daughter reports that things have been tense in the house since her father moved in. The father has a history of depression, though he does not take any medication for it. In addition, lately the father seems to never sleep. “I hear him rummaging around in the kitchen, the garage, the living room, at all hours of the night. Sometimes he’ll nap during the day, but not much. This is putting a strain on my marriage, because my husband can’t sleep with all of this going on.” Which therapeutic approach does the PMHNP identify as most appropriate for the 85-year-old father?
·         Question 14
1 out of 1 points
During an initial meeting, a PMHNP spends time speaking with a patient who suffers from social anxiety. The therapist finds the patient extremely loud and overbearing. The PMHNP’s negative feelings continue no matter how hard he or she tries to feel differently toward the patient. What is the most appropriate next step by the PMHNP?
·         Question 15
1 out of 1 points
A patient has had a problem with substance use and has been receiving treatment for addiction. Which additional step might the PMHMP suggest to help the patient maintain abstinence from drugs during and after treatment?
Selected Answer:

A.
Narcotics Anonymous
·         Question 16
0 out of 1 points
The leader begins a group meeting by doing the “names activity.” At the completion of the activity, the leader explains that the activity is useful for all of the following reasons, except:
·         Question 17
1 out of 1 points
A 36-year-old client attends group therapy regularly but is consistently tardy. The client explains that job and family obligations interfere with attendance to the group. What is the most appropriate intervention by the PMHNP?
·         Question 18
0 out of 1 points
Group participation is an important aspect of how successful group therapy will be. The PMHNP recognizes that the gender of group participants can play a role in the likelihood of group participation. Which statement about gender and group composition does the PMHNP take into account?
·         Question 19
0 out of 1 points
When the counselor discussed assertiveness with the group members, she began the session by providing definitions and asking group members to line up consistent with where they feel they are currently in terms of assertiveness. Why did she do this?
Selected Answer:
A.
To encourage individuals to adjust where they are in terms of assertiveness by having less assertive people change their spot in line
·         Question 20
1 out of 1 points
A patient in group therapy named Ted shares personal information for the first time. He seems nervous but continues to talk. How might the PMHNP use nonverbal positive reinforcement to support Ted’s feeling more comfortable?
Selected Answer:
C.
Leaning forward and nodding as Ted shares his story
·         Question 21
1 out of 1 points
Members of a therapy group have been meeting for several months. During group therapy, a patient is bossy and controlling. During this week’s session, she is confronted by another group member about her behavior and replies, “This is not how I normally act. You are not my family and friends. I don’t act the same way around them.” What can the PMHNP deduce from her behavior?
Selected Answer:
B.
She is displaying her true interpersonal behavior.
·         Question 22
1 out of 1 points
A PNHNP is holding a group therapy session for a father and his 10-year-old son, whom the father explains has been acting out lately. The son says, “He is always telling me what to do and never listens when I have an idea.” Which solution would the PMHNP most likely suggest as an approach to the problem?
·         Question 23
0 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is treating a patient in individual therapy and thinks the patient may be a good candidate for group therapy. The patient is motivated to start group therapy, which meets twice a month. Then the patient adds, “I can come to the first two meetings, but then will be away on business for at least a month, maybe longer. But then I can come to the at least one meeting before my next trip.” Based on this information, what is the most likely recommendation by the PMHNP?
·         Question 24
1 out of 1 points
Members of a therapy group have been meeting for several weeks. While a member named Margaret is talking about how her spouse ignores her when she tries to tell him what to do, another member named Nicole interrupts and says, “Maybe he thinks you are being bossy.” Margaret replies by saying, “At least I’m not an alcoholic like you are!” What is an appropriate response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 25
1 out of 1 points
A 9-year-old child who witnessed a fatal car accident has come to therapy with her parents to get treatment. The child has been irritable since the event and has not wanted to talk about it. Utilizing a trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy (TF-CBT) approach, the PMHNP has reviewed skills that the parents may use to help their child at home. Based on the PMHNP’s suggestion, which is a statement the parents might make after the child has a temper tantrum?
·         Question 26
0 out of 1 points
During the first group meeting, a client states, “I am here because I am very shy. I don’t mesh well with others and I rarely get invitations to go anywhere.” Which statement about the client’s reason for seeking help and treatment best applies?
·         Question 27
1 out of 1 points
A client is observed discussing many problems and complaints during group therapy. However, when other group members attempt to offer advice, the client does not accept it. Based on this observation, what can the PMHNP determine about the client?
·         Question 28
1 out of 1 points
During a group therapy session, a member comments that another member named Ted had no compassion. Ted replies, “Why does it matter if I care one way or another. I can’t solve their problems.” The other member starts crying and blames Ted for this. He shrugs and answers, “I don’t understand why you are crying.” Based on this information, what is the most likely determination the PMHNP can make about Ted?
·         Question 29

1 out of 1 points
Jane has been attending group therapy for the past year; she and the therapist have determined that she has met her goals. Jane has been arriving to group late or not coming to group at all. How does the PMHNP correctly interpret Jane’s behavior?
·         Question 30
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is treating an 8-year-old child who was at a cousin’s house during a domestic violence situation. Using a common factors model, the PMHNP wants to pay attention to cultivating the relationship with the parents and child. After the child talks about how nervous he or she has been since witnessing the trauma, what is an appropriate response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 31
1 out of 1 points
The PMHNP is meeting with a married couple. The husband is 81 years old, and the wife is 78 years old. They tell the PMHNP that many of their friends have passed away over the last couple of years, and it’s making them feel sentimental about their lives and the fact that they are getting older. Hearing this, the PMHNP uses a life review approach with the couple. What action will the PMHNP employ?
·         Question 32
0 out of 1 points
A patient in group therapy for people dealing with panic disorder is describing a recent panic attack. He says, “During this attack, I felt like I was dying.” What is an appropriate response by the PMHNP using didactic instruction?
·         Question 33
1 out of 1 points
A patient in group therapy discloses her concern about feeling suicidal again in the future. Using the principle of universality, what is an appropriate step by the PMHNP?
·         Question 34
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP recognizes that extra group behavior involves behavior that occurs outside of the group or during subgrouping. Which statement best describes extra group behavior as it pertains to group therapy?
·         Question 35
1 out of 1 points
In a group therapy session for patients with anxiety problems, a patient named Eve was afraid to disclose to the other members that she was a victim of sexual abuse. She kept the secret for months, although she hinted at it to other members. During a meeting, another member tried to pressure Eve to disclose her secret, but she was flustered and not ready to share. What is an appropriate response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 36
1 out of 1 points
During his second group therapy session, a member, who was quiet the previous week, becomes very judgmental. He criticizes another member by saying, “Mary, you are always late because you don’t respect our group.” Then he adds, “In fact, all of you are disrespectful and uncaring.” What is an appropriate step by the PMHNP?
·         Question 37
1 out of 1 points
A patient who has been depressed is seeing a PMHNP for individual therapy. The patient explains that he has been avoiding most social activities for the past few months. He is divorced and has joint custody of his 10-year-old daughter. Based on this information, what recommendation by the PMHNP would most benefit the patient?
·         Question 38
1 out of 1 points
Following the PMHNP’s cancellation of a group session, he or she notices a decrease in compliance and attendance within the group. What does the PMHNP identify as the group’s reason for noncompliance?
·         Question 39
1 out of 1 points
A PNHNP is holding a group therapy session. Today, several members have expressed fears about being unlovable. Based on this information, what is an appropriate step by the PMHNP to raise the members’ self-esteem?
·         Question 40
0 out of 1 points
A patient named Tyrone was nervous sharing personal information with the group. To compensate, he makes comments on other members’ problems as if he were the therapist. Another member of the group asked him, “Do you think you’re better than everyone here?” What might the PMHNP help Tyrone gain from this exchange?
·         Question 41
0 out of 1 points

A PMHNP is creating a therapy group and is including a patient with borderline personality disorder. Which action would most likely reduce the patient’s chance of separation anxiety?
·         Question 42
0 out of 1 points
The anticipation of the first meeting among psychotherapy group attendees may cause feelings of dread and uneasiness among clients. How does the PMHNP demonstrate awareness and promote the success of this first psychotherapy meeting?
·         Question 43
1 out of 1 points
For several months, a patient in group therapy always participated in conversation but only shared positive stories about her own life. During the next session, she finally confessed that she has been depressed and cutting herself. What is the best response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 44
0 out of 1 points
Two PMHNPs are in charge of a therapy group that has experienced several maladaptive interpersonal dramas lately. One of the patients has been described by other members as argumentative. After a particularly awkward session, one of the therapists feels that his own interpersonal distortion of the session may be clouding his observation. What is an appropriate step by that PMHNP?
·         Question 45
0 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is treating a 7-year-old child exhibiting signs of aggression and attention problems. Before suggesting an intervention using a common elements approach, what may the PMHNP consider?
·         Question 46
0 out of 1 points
The homogenous mode of composition involves a theory that relates to group composition. When applying this theory, the PMHNP is aware that the group will most likely consist of which of the following?
·         Question 47
0 out of 1 points
A patient has attended three group therapy sessions and has remained silent throughout each. The patient has, however, been listening to the other members. When the therapist makes eye contact with the patient, he or she forces a smile but has clenched fists. What is the most appropriate response by the PMHNP to help the patient?
·         Question 48
1 out of 1 points
The PMHNP is meeting with an older married couple. The couple reports having concerns about becoming dependent on their adult children someday, since several of their other friends have had to move in with their kids. They make it clear to the PMHNP that they aren’t keen on therapy or taking medicine but would be willing to try some alternative therapies. What does the PMHNP suggest for evidence-based CAM modalities?
·         Question 49
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP explains during a discussion that subgrouping has the potential to make group therapy more complicated and less rewarding. Tara, a member of the group, angrily states, “Well, Jack and I have been meeting outside of the group for weeks now.” What is the PMHNP’s most appropriate response?
·         Question 50
0 out of 1 points
Gregory is a middle-aged veteran participant in a group led by the PMHNP. Since Gregory has been attending group, he frequently interrupts others and seems to take much of the group time for himself. The PMHNP identifies Gregory as a monopolist and confronts him. She explains that she does not want him to talk less; instead, she actually encourages him to talk more. What is the likely cause of the PMHNP’s explanation?
·         Question 51
1 out of 1 points
The PMHNP understands that conflicts within the psychotherapy group can be troublesome for clients and have the potential to reduce the effectiveness of the group process. As it pertains to group meetings, the PMHNP understands which statement to be true about conflict?
·         Question 52
1 out of 1 points
One member of a therapy group had been quiet for the first several sessions. The member revealed to the other members feeling of depression and emptiness. This week, the member was full of energy and talking very quickly. The member became irritated with another member tried to interrupt, started yelling, and then broke into a fit of laughter. Based on the situation, what can the PMHNP determine about the member?
·         Question 53
1 out of 1 points
A group member who suffers from depression and anxiety says during the session, “I don’t see how any of this is going to help. I am still too anxious to leave the house and do the things I want to do.” What is an appropriate response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 54
0 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is leading a group therapy session for patients with substance abuse problems. After one member shares a problem, other members offer support, concern, and observations. The PMHNP points out that the group is offering many truthful reactions and helpful feedback. Which principle does this illustrate?
·         Question 55
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP provides cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to an older adult patient with depression. The patient’s 41-year-old daughter and 32-year-old son attend one of his sessions with the PMHNP so that they can learn more about how to help their father. What does the PMHNP say to the daughter and son about the goals of their father’s CBT?
·         Question 56
0 out of 1 points
The PMHNP recognizes that hostility is unavoidable in a group and acknowledges that a frequent source of hostility can be parataxic distortions. Which situation is likely to present a parataxic distortion within the group?
·         Question 57
1 out of 1 points
Members of group therapy have been meeting for several weeks. The PMHNP often starts sentences with a thank you or compliment such as, “Good observation.” The PMHNP notices that some of the group members having been starting their statements with compliments. To which principle can the PMHNP attribute this process?
·         Question 58
1 out of 1 points
A client diagnosed with depression has begun to feel despair and expresses a desire to leave the group because he or she does not believe it is helpful. Which action by the PMHNP will most likely contribute to the client staying in the group?
·         Question 59
1 out of 1 points
A 14-year-old girl named Laura and her parents are meeting with a PMHNP. The parents explain why they are there by saying, “Laura has been unhappy since she moved to a new school. She has been moody and often talks back to us.” Laura sits quietly and looks uncomfortable. Which is the best response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 60
1 out of 1 points
Many key principles assist with composing intensive interactional psychotherapy groups. When composing a psychotherapy group, utilizing the intensive interactional approach, which key principle does the PMHNP identify as being false?
·         Question 61
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP notices that adolescents in a therapy group have not been getting along. They are divided into two main groups and each automatically dislikes members of the other group. What is an appropriate step for the PMHNP to take?
·         Question 62
0 out of 1 points
During an initial screening session, the PMHNP is considering a patient for group therapy. The patient is recently divorced and says he is lonely and depressed. What is the best referral by the PMHNP?
·         Question 63
0 out of 1 points
During an initial meeting, a patient who has been discussing suicide says to the PMHNP, “I’m so depressed that I don’t want to leave my house. All I want to do is stay in bed.” What type of therapy would the PMHNP most likely recommend to this patient?
·         Question 64
0 out of 1 points
A member in group therapy named Tom asked others for suggestions to a problem he was having. He did not think a suggestion by a member named Steve would work, and for the rest of session, the group took sides arguing why the idea would work or would not work. The session ended with Tom agreeing to try the suggestion and report back to the group the following week. Based on this session, what is an appropriate step by the PMHNP?
·         Question 65
1 out of 1 points
The PMHNP is working with an older adult woman and her adult children. The children report that the mother was diagnosed with dementia, and they are all concerned about her welfare. The plan is for the mother to move in with one of the children, but they are still worried about how the mother will manage during the day when she is left alone. What does the PMHNP identify as the focus of the family therapy?
·         Question 66
1 out of 1 points
During a group session, a member turns to the PMHNP and says, “I need some advice. My manager asked me to take on an extra project, and now I’m overwhelmed. I don’t want to seem incompetent, so I agreed to the extra work. What do you recommend I do?” What is the best response by the PMHNP in order to shape group behavior?
·         Question 67
0 out of 1 points
During a group therapy session, a member shares that she often feels lonely and depressed. She has been turning down invitations to spend time with friends lately, because she does not want to leave the house. What is an appropriate step for the PMHNP to take?
Selected Answer:
A.
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Assign homework to have the patient work on improving interpersonal communication
·         Question 68
1 out of 1 points
Self-disclosure is a very important part of group therapy. Which of the following conditions does the PMHNP identify in his or her own life as a possible hindrance to self-disclosure?
·         Question 69
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is meeting with the mother of a 10-year-old boy named Malik, who has been depressed since his parents’ divorce. The mother explains that her goal for treatment is to help Malik feel better so he can become his “usual outgoing self.” She insists that she does not want him on medication. Which is the best response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 70
1 out of 1 points
A client has attended five group therapy sessions yet has not engaged verbally with others in the group. The PMHNP has identified the client as a “silent member.” Which statement is true about silent members as related to group therapy?
·         Question 71
1 out of 1 points
A narcissistic patient was unhappy that other members did not seem concerned about his or her dating problems, which the patient spent half the session talking about. The patient confronted the group by saying, “All of you are rude and uncaring!” When group members ignored this comment, the patient said, “And no one said anything nice about my new haircut either!” What is an appropriate response by the PMHNP?
·         Question 72
1 out of 1 points
According to Dr. Carlson, since Adler talked about how the social setting in which we live influences our lives, the best way parents can change their children’s behavior is to change:
·         Question 73
1 out of 1 points
In the parent consultation session, the parent discusses her son “Blake” who has changed since his 13th birthday. Dr. Carlson discusses the power conflict that the parent appears to be getting into with her son. When they discuss approaches they can use to help Blake experience increased responsibility, Dr. Carlson explains that the parent must make a commitment with her son by agreeing to:
·         Question 74
0 out of 1 points
A PMHNP is evaluating a patient who has problems with authority and has trouble accepting criticism. The patient is aware of these problems and wants to change. Based on this, what is an appropriate action by the PMHNP?
·         Question 75
1 out of 1 points
A PMHNP has a therapy group in which many members have been dropping out over the past several weeks. Members have complained that they do not feel part of the group. What is an appropriate step for the PMHNP to take?
·         Question 76
0 out of 0 points
When completing this exam, did you comply with Walden University’s Code of Conduct including the expectations for academic integrity?

NURS 6512 Week 6 Midterm Exam: Advanced Health Assessment: Walden University (Already Graded A)
NURS 6512 Week 6 Midterm Exam: Advanced Health Assessment: Walden University (Already Graded A)

Question 26: Health care.

NSG6435 Week 5 Assignment 4 Midterm Exam NSG 6435 Week 5 Midterm Exam

Question 27: Health care

Walden University NURS 6531 6531 Wk6 midterm review questions

Walden University NURS 6531wk6 NURS 6531 Week 6 midterm review questions

WK6
Week 6- Quiz

Question 1
1 out of 1 points

A 25-year-old female presents to urgent care complaining of nausea, vomiting and diarrhea for 24 hours. Important physical exam components for this patient include

Question 2
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following disorders is associated with obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia?

Question 3
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following disorders can be associated with anal fissures?

Question 4
1 out of 1 points

A 33-year-old female is admitted with acute pancreatitis. The nurse practitioner knows that the most common cause of pancreatitis is:

Question 5
1 out of 1 points

An AST that is more than twice the level of ALT is suggestive of:

Question 6
1 out of 1 points

Question 7
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following is considered a functional gastrointestinal disorder?

Question 8
1 out of 1 points

Question 9
1 out of 1 points

Potential causes of diarrhea include which of the following:

Question 10
0 out of 1 points

An 80-year-old male admits to difficulty swallowing during the review of systems. The nurse practitioner recognizes the differential diagnosis for this patient’s dysphagia is:

Choices: Chest pain; GERD; esophageal cancer; GERD & esophageal cancer; or all of the above
I chose all of the above (incorrect)
Possibly just A & C is the answer (GERD and cancer)

week 6 quiz

question 1
Which of the following disorders is associated with obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia?
A.            Autoimmune hepatitis
B.            Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis
C.            Hemochromatosis
D.            Wilson’s disease
Question 2
Which of the following is considered a functional gastrointestinal disorder?

A. Crohn’s disease

B. Ulcerative colitis

C. Constipation

D. Irritable bowel syndrome
Question 3
Which of the following describes a third degree internal hemorrhoid?

A. Bulge, but not prolapsed through anal orifice

B. Prolapsed during defecation requiring manual reinsertion

C. Prolapsed during defecation and reduce spontaneously

D. Less likely to bleed, but positive edema and pain
Question 4
A 65-year-old female with a past medical history of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and polymyalgia rheumatica presents to urgent care with new onset left lower quadrant pain. Her current medications include omeprazole 20 milligrams po daily, lisinopril 20 milligrams po daily, simvastatin 20 milligrams po daily, and prednisone 12 milligrams po daily. The nurse practitioner suspects acute diverticulitis and possibly an abscess. The most appropriate diagnostic test for this patient at this time is:

A. CBC/diff

B. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

C. Abdominal ultrasound

D. CT scan

Question 5
A 58-year-old man is diagnosed with Barrett’s esophagus after an endoscopy. He has no known allergies. Which of the following medications is MOST appropriate to treat this patient’s disorder?

A. Omeprazole

B. Ranitidine

C. An antacid

D. None of the above
Question 6
Risk factor(s) associated with inflammatory bowel disease include:

A. Smoking

B. Alcohol ingestion

C. Greek heritage

D. None of the above
Question 7
Treatment of H.pylori includes which of the following?

A. Proton pump inhibitor

B. Antibiotic therapy

C. Bismuth subsalicylate

D. A and B

E. A, B, and C
Question 8
An AST that is more than twice the level of ALT is suggestive of:

A. A hemolytic disorder

B. Cholestasis

C. Infiltrative liver disease

D. Alcoholic liver injury
Question 9
Pruritus ani is related to

A. Corynebacterium minutissimum

B. Pinworm infestation

C. Stahphylococcus aureus

D. B only

E. A, B, and C
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A. Acute diarrhea

B. Chronic diarrhea

C. Irritable bowel

D. Functional bowel disease

•Question 1
1 out of 1 points

An 80-year-old male admits to difficulty swallowing during the review of systems. The nurse practitioner recognizes the differential diagnosis for this patient’s dysphagia is:

GERD and Cancer

•Question 2
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following describes a third degree internal hemorrhoid?
A.            Bulge, but not prolapsed through anal orifice
B.            Prolapsed during defecation requiring manual reinsertion
C.            Prolapsed during defecation and reduce spontaneously
D.            Less likely to bleed, but positive edema and pain

•Question 3
1 out of 1 points

CT scan

•Question 4
1 out of 1 points

Answer: short-bowel follow through

•Question 5
1 out of 1 points

Potential causes of diarrhea include which of the following:
All of the above: meds, infection, constipation

•Question 6
1 out of 1 points

Which of the following disorders is associated with obesity, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia?

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

•Question 7
1 out of 1 points

Chronic Diarrhea

•Question 8
1 out of 1 points

A 33-year-old female is admitted with acute pancreatitis. The nurse practitioner knows that the most common cause of pancreatitis is:

Gallstones

•Question 9
1 out of 1 points

Treatment of H.pylori includes which of the following?

A, B, C : bismuth, PPI, and antibiotic

•Question 10
1 out of 1 points

A 58-year-old man is diagnosed with Barrett’s esophagus after an endoscopy. He has no known allergies. Which of the following medications is MOST appropriate to treat this patient’s disorder?

Omeprazole

Question 28: Health care

Esther Park Shadow Health Assignment
Esther Park Shadow Health Assignment
Esther Park Shadow Health Assignment

Question 29: Health care

NURS 6660 Final Exam Walden University
NURS 6660 Final Exam Walden University
NURS 6660 Final Exam Walden University

Question 30: Health Care

A baccalaureate nurse understands, relates, and values the fundamental elements of research, process, and designs as a foundation for an evidence-based practice (AACN, 2008; QSEN, 2018).
Purpose:
This assignment provides a learning activity for students to demonstrate understanding of quantitative and qualitative research, the purpose and importance of designs, and how research is critical for creating a credible evidence-based nursing practice.
Course Outcomes:
This assignment enables the student to meet the following Course Outcomes.
CO 1: Examine the sources of evidence that contribute to professional nursing practice. (PO 7)
CO 2: Apply research principles to the interpretation of the content of published research studies. (PO 4 & 8)
CO 5: Recognize the role of research findings in evidence-based practice. (PO 7 & 8)
Due Date
Submit the completed Research Designs Assignment by Sunday, 11:59 p.m. MT at the end of Week 5.
Points
This assignment is worth 225 points.
Directions for Preparing the Scholarly Paper:
Read each of these instructions.
Read the assignment grading rubric criteria.
This assignment is completed as an APA paper. APA resources can be found in your Resources Tab. You are required to complete the paper using the productivity tools required by Chamberlain University, which is Microsoft Office Word 2013 (or later version), or Windows and Office 2011 (or later version) for MAC. You must save the file in the “.docx” format. Do NOT save as Word Pad. A later version of the productivity tool includes Office 365, which is available to Chamberlain students for FREE by downloading from the student portal at http://my.chamberlain.edu (Links to an external site.) . Click on the envelope at the top of the page.
You are required to use the grading rubric criteria to ensure you are meeting all grading requirements of the paper.
The guideline below is a recommended outline only and does not substitute for your assignment grading rubric; your paper will be graded using the assignment grading rubric criteria.
For the introduction paragraph section, summarize your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
The need for nursing research.
The importance for nurses to understand the basic principles of research.
The purpose of your paper.
For the quantitative research section, summarize your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
The importance of quantitative research.
One type of quantitative design; explain one important feature of this type of design.
How quantitative research can help improve nursing practice.
For the qualitative research section, your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
The importance of qualitative research.
One type of qualitative design; explain one important feature of this type of design.
How qualitative research can help improve nursing practice.
For the research sampling section, your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
What is sampling and why is sampling important.
One sampling strategy used in quantitative research.
One other sampling strategy that you learned.
For the credible nursing practice section, your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
How reOnline Professional Tutoring meets its match at https://www.homeworknest.com/ . This is by far the tested and most trusted Online College Homework Help /Tutoring Website for College Students in Universities and Colleges across the Globe. Get Online Homework Help, Assignments Help at https://www.homeworknest.com/ . Chat With Your Tutors in Real Time To Get Exam Tutoring Help!
search can help to make nursing practice safer.
Why research is critical for creating an evidence-based nursing practice.
For the conclusion section, summarize your learning using mostly your own words (see the grading rubric for details):
Short, concise, thorough summary of the main points of the paper.
Double check your work with the grading rubric to ensure you have met all grading criteria for this assignment.
Two or more supporting scholarly references are required. Textbooks are not allowed and should not be used as a scholarly source. Use the Chamberlain Library to locate relevant, scholarly sources.
No more than two direct quotes are allowed. You should be using mostly your own words to demonstrate your understanding of the topics/criteria for this assignment. Citations and references must be included.
This is a short, scholarly paper. The assignment should be 3-4 pages in length not including the title page and references page.
Submit the completed assignment on the Week 5: Assignment page.
**Academic Integrity Reminder**
Chamberlain College of Nursing values honesty and integrity. All students should be aware of the Academic Integrity policy and follow it in all discussions and assignments.
By submitting this assignment, I pledge on my honor that all content contained is my own original work except as quoted and cited appropriately. I have not received any unauthorized assistance on this assignment.
Note: Please use your browser’s File menu to save or print this page.
References
American Association of Colleges of Nurses (AACN). (2008). Executive summary: The essentials of baccalaureate education for professional nursing practice(2008). Retrieved from http://www.aacnnursing.org/Education-Resources/AACN-Essentials
Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN). (2018). QSEN knowledge, skills, and attitude competencies. Retrieved from http://qsen.org/competencies/pre-licensure-ksas/
Rubric

NR439 Research Designs Assignment Rubric
NR439 Research Designs Assignment Rubric
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Introduction
Write a paragraph introduction incorporating your learning and using mostly your own words to summarize: a) The need for nursing research. b) The importance for nurses to understand the basic principles of research. c) The purpose of your paper.
32.0 pts
Thoroughly summarizes criteria in the first column. Excellent details are provided.
28.0 pts
Mostly summarizes criteria in the first column or one criteria lacks details or is missing.
25.0 pts
Minimally summarizes criteria from first the column or two criteria lack details or is missing.
11.0 pts
Poorly summarizes criteria from the first column or all criteria lack details.
0.0 pts
All criteria from the first column are missing.
32.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Quantitative Research
Write a paragraph incorporating your learning and using mostly your own words to summarize: a) The importance of quantitative research. b) One type of quantitative design; explain one important feature of this type of design. c) How quantitative research can help improve nursing practice.
34.0 pts
Thoroughly summarizes criteria in the first column. Excellent details are provided.
30.0 pts
Mostly summarizes criteria in the first column or one criteria lacks details or is missing.
27.0 pts
Minimally summarizes criteria from first the column or two criteria lack details or is missing.
13.0 pts
Poorly summarizes criteria from the first column or all criteria lack details.
0.0 pts
All criteria from the first column are missing.
34.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Qualitative Research
Write a paragraph incorporating your learning and using mostly your own words to summarize: a) The importance of qualitative research. b) One type of qualitative design; explain one important feature of this type of design. c) How qualitative research can help improve nursing practice.
34.0 pts
Thoroughly summarizes criteria in the first column. Excellent details are provided.
30.0 pts
Mostly summarizes criteria in the first column or one criteria lacks details or is missing.
27.0 pts
Minimally summarizes criteria from first the column or two criteria lack details or is missing.
13.0 pts
Poorly summarizes criteria from the first column or all criteria lack details.
0.0 pts
All criteria from the first column are missing.
34.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Research Sampling
Write a paragraph incorporating your learning and using mostly your own words to summarize: a) What is sampling and why is sampling important. b) One sampling strategy used in quantitative research. c) One other sampling strategy that you learned.
34.0 pts
Thoroughly summarizes all criteria in the first column. Thorough details are provided.
30.0 pts
Mostly summarizes criteria in the first column or one criteria lacks details or is missing.
27.0 pts
Minimally summarizes criteria from the first column or two criteria lack details or is missing.
13.0 pts
Vaguely summarizes all criteria from the first column or all criteria lack details.
0.0 pts
All criteria from the first column are missing.
34.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Credible Nursing Practice
Write a paragraph incorporating your learning and using mostly your own words to summarize: a) How research can help to make nursing practice safer. b) Why research is critical for creating an evidence-based nursing practice.
34.0 pts
Thoroughly summarizes criteria in the first column. Thorough details are provided.
30.0 pts
Mostly summarizes criteria in the first column. Good details.
27.0 pts
Minimally summarizes criteria in the first column or one criteria lack details or is missing.
13.0 pts
Poorly summarizes criteria from the first column or both criteria lack details.
0.0 pts
Both criteria from the first column are missing.
34.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Conclusion
Write a short, concise, thorough summary of the main points of the paper.
32.0 pts
Summarizes a short, concise, thorough summary of the main points of the paper.
28.0 pts
Mostly summarizes the main points of the paper. Good details.
25.0 pts
Writes a vague summary of the paper. Fair details.
11.0 pts
Writes a poor summary of the paper. Poor details.

0.0 pts
Did not sufficiently provide any of the conclusion criteria or conclusion not discussed.
32.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Scholarly Writing, Mechanics, Organization, Spelling, Sentence Structure, Grammar.
8.0 pts
Excellent scholarly writing, mechanics, organization, spelling, sentence structure, grammar. No errors noted.
6.0 pts
Good writing, mechanics, organization, spelling, sentence structure, grammar. A few errors.
3.0 pts
Fair writing, mechanics, organization, Spelling, sentence structure, grammar. Some errors noted.
2.0 pts
Poor writing, mechanics, organization, spelling sentence structure, grammar. Many errors noted.
0.0 pts
Very poor writing, mechanics, and organization. Errors throughout are noted. Writing is difficult to understand or follow.
8.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome APA Formatting
8.0 pts
Excellent APA formatting with no errors. Uses mostly own words. No more than 2 direct quotes used.
6.0 pts
Good APA formatting with a few errors noted. Three direct quotes used.
3.0 pts
Fair APA formatting with some errors noted. Four direct quotes used.
2.0 pts
Poor APA formatting with many errors noted. Five or more direct quotes used.
0.0 pts
Very poor APA with errors noted throughout.
8.0 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome Supporting Evidence
Uses 2 or more relevant scholarly sources to support writing. Textbooks should not be used.
9.0 pts
Uses 2 or more relevant scholarly sources to support writing. Textbooks are not used.
5.0 pts
Uses at least 1 relevant scholarly source to support writing.
0.0 pts
No relevant scholarly sources provided.
9.0 pts
Total Points: 225.0

Step 2: Silicon Valley Startup Companies

Read the following articles about Silicon Valley startup companies (Focus on Theranos and Zenefits ). Each company discussed in the articles listed below eventually came under scrutiny for ethical and/or legal issues.

Griffith, E. (2017, December 16). The other tech bubble. Wired. Retrieved fromhttps://www.wired.com/story/the-other-tech-bubble/

Griffith, E. (2017, December 28). The ugly unethical underside of Silicon Valley. Fortune. Retrieved from https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/28/the-ugly-unethical-underside-of-silicon-valley/

Hartmans, A. (2018, September 5). The rise and fall of Elizabeth Holmes, who started Theranos when she was 19 and became the world’s youngest female billionaire before it all came crashing down. Business Insider Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/theranos-founder-ceo-elizabeth-holmes-life-story-bio-2018-4

Suddath, C. and Newcomer, E. (2016, May 9). Zenefits was the perfect startup. Then it self-disrupted. Bloomberg. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-zenefits/

Step 3: Overview of Companies

Provide a company overview for Zenefits and Theranos. Describe the purpose(s) for the founding of the company; i.e., what problems was it formed to solve and/or opportunities it was formed to exploit, who are the founders, home country or state, management, etc.

Step 4: Ethical or Legal Issues

You will research each company to establish the facts of each situation. Once you have established the facts surrounding the decisions made by Theranos and Zenefits:

Identify and discuss the ethical issues associated with each company.
Identify and discuss the legal issues associated with each company.
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Step 5: Stakeholders

Identify the stakeholders associated with each company and explain the impact of the company’s decisions on the specific stakeholders.
Discuss how the stakeholders reacted to the decision(s) made by each company.

Step 6: Generate Alternatives

From what you have read, the startup culture poses a host of temptations creating a never-ending series of ethical choices and dilemmas. Companies are faced with the challenges of venture investors who expect hyper-growth and quick results. For privately-held companies, self-reporting, unaudited financials is an option as is not reporting, and the media serves to promote an attractive opportunity. Lastly, it is easy to rationalize behavior when the expectation is that entrepreneurs set the world on fire with innovative, disruptive technologies that promote overlooking rules and one’s moral compass.

Like many business people, some Silicon Valley decision makers need help in recognizing the ethical dilemmas they face when doing business and understanding the need for following rules and setting ethical standards. You will:

Generate and discuss at least three viable alternatives to help Silicon Valley startup companies operate and behave ethically. In doing so, it is necessary to consider the ethical and legal requirements.

Step 7: Evaluate Each Alternative

Examine the benefits and drawbacks of each proposed alternative. Provide careful consideration to the factors that influence the outcome of each alternative.

Step 8: Recommend the Best Alternative

Once you have evaluated each alternative, recommend the best alternative that ensure appropriate business practices and accountability.
Explain how Silicon Valley startup companies will effectively communicate this change to internal and external business stakeholders.

Step 9: Review the Paper

Read the paper to ensure all required elements are present. Use the grading rubric to ensure that you gain the most points possible for this assignment.

Proofread the paper for spelling and grammatical issues, and third person writing.

Read the paper aloud as a first measure;
Use the spell and grammar check in Word as a second measure;
Have someone who has excellent English skills proofread the paper;
Consider submitting the paper to the Effective Writing Center (EWC). The EWC will provide 4-6 areas that may need improvement.

Step 10: Submit the paper in the Assignment Folder (The assignment submitted to the Assignment Folder will be considered the student’s final product and therefore ready for grading by the instructor. It is incumbent upon the student to verify the assignment is the correct submission. No exceptions will be considered by the instructor).

How to Set Up the Paper

Create a Word or Rich Text Format (RTF) document that is double-spaced, 12-point font. The final product will be between 6-8 pages in length excluding the title page and reference page. Write clearly and concisely.

Completing the Paper

In order to complete this project, you will want to first read the module, Learn How to Support What You Write, as this assignment requires you to use the course material to support what you write. Also,

Read and use the grading rubric while completing the exercise to ensure all requirements are met that will lead to the highest possible grade.
Third person writing is required. Third person means that there are no words such as “I, me, my, we, or us” (first person writing), nor is there use of “you or your” (second person writing). If uncertain how to write in the third person, view this link: http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/first-second-and-third-person.
Contractions are not used in business writing, so do not use them.
Paraphrase and do not use direct quotation marks. Paraphrase means you do not use more than four consecutive words from a source document. Instead put a passage from a source document into your own words and attribute the passage to the source document. Not using direct quotation marks means that there should be no passages with quotation marks and instead the source material is paraphrased as stated above. Note that a reference within a reference list cannot exist without an associated in-text citation and vice versa. You may not use more than four consecutive words from a source document, as doing so would require direct quotation marks. Changing words from a passage does not exclude the passage from having quotation marks. If more than four consecutive words are used from source documents, this material will not be included in the grade and could lead to allegations of academic dishonesty.
You are expected to use the case scenarios and weekly course material to develop the analysis and support the reasoning. There should be a robust use of the course material and case scenario facts. Material used from a source document must be cited and referenced. A reference within a reference list cannot exist without an associated in-text citation and vice versa. Changing words from a passage does not exclude the passage from having quotation marks. If more than four consecutive words are used from source documents, this material will not be included in the grade and could lead to allegations of academic dishonesty.
Use in-text citations and provide a reference list that contains the reference associated with each in-text citation.
The only book you may use is the course eBook. You may not use a dictionary or Wikipedia.
Provide the page or paragraph number in every in-text citation presented. If the eBook does not have pages, provide the chapter title and topic heading.

Self-Plagiarism: Self-plagiarism is the act of reusing significant, identical or nearly identical portions of one’s own work. You cannot re-use any portion of a paper or other graded work that was submitted to another class even if you are retaking this course. You also will not reuse any portion of previously submitted work in this class. A zero will be assigned to the assignment if self-plagiarized. Faculty do not have the discretion to accept self-plagiarized work.

https://www.thoughtco.com/kantian-ethics-moral-philosophy-immanuel-kant-4045398

This link, as well as the links that are attached inside of the instructions.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

This text was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under a Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License without

attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

Preface

Ethics is about determining value; it’s deciding what’s worth doing and what doesn’t matter so much.

Business ethics is the way we decide what kind of career to pursue, what choices we make on the job,

which companies we want to work with, and what kind of economic world we want to live in and then

leave behind for those coming after. There are no perfect answers to these questions, but there’s a

difference between thinking them through and winging it. The Business Ethics Workshop provides a

framework for identifying, analyzing, and resolving ethical dilemmas encountered through working life.

This text’s principles:

 It’s your call. Some of the book’s case studies ask for defenses of ethical positions that few agree with

(for example, the claim that a drug dealer’s job is better than a police officer’s). Exercises like this align

with the textbook’s aim: provoking reasoning freed from customary divisions between right and wrong. In

the end, no one completely resists their own habits of thinking or society’s broad pressures, but testing the

limits sharpens the tools of ethical analysis. These tools can be relied on later on when you face decisions

that you alone have to make. The aim of this book is to help make those decisions with coherent,

defensible reasoning.

 Keep it mostly real. Ethics is an everyday activity. It’s not mysterious, head-in-the-clouds ruminating

but determining the worth of things around us: Working at an advertising agency is exciting—actors,

lights, cameras, and TV commercials—but do I really want to hock sugary breakfast cereals to children?

Should I risk my reputation by hiring my college roommate, the one who’s habits of showing up late and

erratically to class have carried over to working life? These are the immediate questions of business ethics,

and while any textbook on the subject must address broad, impersonal questions including the

responsibilities of massive corporations in modern societies, this book’s focus stays as often as possible on

ordinary people in normal but difficult circumstances.

 Be current. The rules of ethical thinking don’t change much, but the world is a constant revolution. The

textbook and its cases follow along as closely as possible, citing from blog posts and recent news stories.

As a note here, to facilitate reading some of these citations have been slightly and silently modified.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

 Let’s talk about our problem. Case studies are the most important components of this text because it

was written for a discussion-intensive class. Ethics isn’t something we know; it’s something we do, and

trying out our reasoning is the best way to confirm that it’s actually working.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

Chapter 1

What Is Business Ethics?

Chapter Overview

Chapter 1 “What Is Business Ethics?” defines business ethics and sketches how debates within the field

happen. The history of the discipline is also considered, along with the overlap between business and

personal ethics.

1.1 What Is Business Ethics?

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

Define the components of business ethics.
Outline how business ethics works.

Captive Customers

Ann Marie Wagoner studies at the University of Alabama (UA). She pays $1,200 a year for books, which is

exasperating, but what really ticks her off is the text for her composition class. Called A Writer’s Reference

(Custom Publication for the University of Alabama), it’s the same Writer’s Reference sold everywhere

else, with slight modifications: there are thirty-two extra pages describing the school’s particular writing

program, the Alabama A is emblazoned on the front cover, there’s an extra $6 on the price tag (compared

with the price of the standard version when purchased new), and there’s an added sentence on the back:

“This book may not be bought or sold used.” The modifications are a collective budget wrecker. Because

she’s forced to buy a new copy of the customized Alabama text, she ends up paying about twice what she’d

pay for a used copy of the standard, not-customized book that’s available at Chegg.com and similar usedbook

dealers.

For the extra money, Wagoner doesn’t get much—a few additional text pages and a school spirit cover.

Worse, those extra pages are posted free on the English department’s website, so the cover’s the only

unambiguous benefit. Even there, though, it’d be cheaper to just buy a UA bumper sticker and paste it

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

across the front. It’s hard to see, finally, any good reason for the University of Alabama English

Department to snare its own students with a textbook costing so much.

Things clear up when you look closely at the six-dollar difference between the standard new book cost and

the customized UA version. Only half that money stays with the publisher to cover specialized printing

costs. The other part kicks back to the university’s writing program, the one requiring the book in the first

place. It turns out there’s a quiet moneymaking scheme at work here: the English department gets some

straight revenue, and most students, busy with their lives, don’t notice the royalty details. They get their

books, roll their eyes at the cash register, and get on with things.

Wagoner noticed, though. According to an extensive article in the Wall Street Journal, she calls the cost

of new custom books “ridiculous.” She’s also more than a little suspicious about why students aren’t more

openly informed about the royalty arrangement: “They’re hiding it so there isn’t a huge uproar.” [1]

While it may be true that the Tuscaloosa University is hiding what’s going on, they’re definitely not doing

a very good job since the story ended up splattered across the Wall Street Journal. One reason the story

reached one of the United States’ largest circulation dailies is that a lot of universities are starting to get in

on the cash. Printing textbooks within the kickback model is, according to the article, the fastest growing

slice of the $3.5 billion college textbook market.

The money’s there, but not everyone is eager to grab it. James Koch, an economist and former president

of Old Dominion University and the University of Montana, advises schools to think carefully before

tapping into customized-textbook dollars because, he says, the whole idea “treads right on the edge of

what I would call unethical behavior. I’m not sure it passes the smell test.” [2]

What Is Business Ethics?

What does it mean to say a business practice doesn’t “pass the smell test”? And what would happen if

someone read the article and said, “Well, to me it smells all right”? If no substance fills out the idea, if

there’s no elaboration, then there probably wouldn’t be much more to say. The two would agree to

disagree and move on. Normally, that’s OK; no one has time to debate everything. But if you want to get

involved—if you’re like Wagoner who sounds angry about what’s going on and maybe wants to change it—

you’ll need to do more than make comments about how things hit the nose.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

Doing business ethics means providing reasons for how things ought to be in the economic world. This

requires the following:

 Arranging values to guide decisions. There needs to be a clearly defined and well-justified set of

priorities about what’s worth seeking and protecting and what other things we’re willing to compromise or

give up. For example, what’s more important and valuable: consumers (in this case students paying for an

education) getting their books cheaply or protecting the right of the university to run the business side of

its operation as it sees fit?

 Understanding the facts. To effectively apply a set of values to any situation, the situation itself must be

carefully defined. Who, for example, is involved in the textbook conflict? Students, clearly, as well as

university administrators. What about parents who frequently subsidize their college children? Are they

participants or just spectators? What about those childless men and women in Alabama whose taxes go to

the university? Are they involved? And how much money are we talking about? Where does it go? Why?

How and when did all this get started?

 Constructing arguments. This shows how, given the facts, one action serves our values better than other

actions. While the complexities of real life frequently disallow absolute proofs, there remains an absolute

requirement of comprehensible reasoning. Arguments need to make sense to outside observers. In simple,

practical terms, the test of an ethical argument resembles the test of a recipe for a cook: others need to be

able to follow it and come to the same result. There may remain disagreements about facts and values at

the end of an argument in ethics, but others need to understand the reasoning marking each step taken on

the way to your conclusion.

Finally, the last word in ethics is a determination about right and wrong. This actual result, however, is

secondary to the process: the verdict is only the remainder of forming and debating arguments. That’s

why doing ethics isn’t brainwashing. Conclusions are only taken seriously if composed from clear values,

recognized facts, and solid arguments.

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Bringing Ethics to Kickback Textbooks

The Wall Street Journal article on textbooks and kickbacks to the university is a mix of facts, values, and

arguments. They can be sorted out; an opportunity to do the sorting is provided by one of the article’s

more direct assertions:

Royalty arrangements involving specially made books may violate colleges’ conflict-of-interest

rules because they appear to benefit universities more than students.

A conflict of interest occurs when a university pledges to serve the interest of students but finds that its

own interest is served by not doing that. It doesn’t sound like this is a good thing (in the language of the

article, it smells bad). But to reach that conclusion in ethical terms, the specific values, facts, and

arguments surrounding this conflict need to be defined.

Start with the values. The priorities and convictions underneath the conflict-of-interest accusation are

clear. When university takes tuition money from a student and promises to do the best job possible in

providing an education to the student, then it better do that. The truth matters. When you make a

promise, you’ve got to fulfill it. Now, this fundamental value is what makes a conflict of interest

worrisome. If we didn’t care about the truth at all, then a university promising one thing and doing

something else wouldn’t seem objectionable. In the world of poker, for example, when a player makes a

grand show of holding a strong hand by betting a pile of chips, no one calls him a liar when it’s later

revealed that the hand was weak. The truth isn’t expected in poker, and bluffing is perfectly acceptable.

Universities aren’t poker tables, though. Many students come to school expecting honesty from their

institution and fidelity to agreements. To the extent these values are applied, a conflict of interest becomes

both possible and objectionable.

With the core value of honesty established, what are the facts? The “who’s involved?” question brings in

the students buying the textbooks, the company making the textbooks (Bedford/St. Martin’s in Boston),

and the University of Alabama. As drawn from the UA web page, here’s the school’s purpose, the reason it

exists in the first place: “The University of Alabama is a student-centered research university and an

academic community united in its commitment to enhancing the quality of life for all Alabamians.”

Moving to the financial side, specific dollar amounts should be listed (the textbook’s cost, the cost for the

non-customized version). Also, it may be important to note the financial context of those involved: in the

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case of the students, some are comfortably wealthy or have parents paying for everything, while others

live closer to their bank accounts edge and are working their way through school.

Finally, the actual book-selling operation should be clearly described. In essence, what’s going on is that

the UA English Department is making a deal with the Bedford/St. Martin’s textbook company. The

university proposes, “If you give us a cut of the money you make selling textbooks, we’ll let you make

more money off our students.” Because the textbooks are customized, the price goes up while the supply

of cheap used copies (that usually can be purchased through the Internet from stores across the nation)

goes way down. It’s much harder for UA students to find used copies, forcing many to buy a new version.

This is a huge windfall for Bedford/St. Martin’s because, for them, every time a textbook is resold used,

they lose a sale. On the other side, students end up shelling out the maximum money for each book

because they have to buy new instead of just recycling someone else’s from the previous year. Finally, at

the end of the line there is the enabler of this operation, the English department that both requires the

book for a class and has the book customized to reduce used-copy sales. They get a small percentage of

Bedford/St. Martin’s extra revenue.

With values and facts established, an argument against kickback textbooks at Alabama can be drawn up.

By customizing texts and making them mandatory, UA is forcing students to pay extra money to take a

class: they have to spend about thirty dollars extra, which is the difference between the cost of a new,

customized textbook and the standard version purchased, used. Students generally don’t have a lot of

money, and while some pass through school on the parental scholarship, others scrape by and have to

work a Mc Job to make ends meet. So for at least some students, that thirty dollars directly equals time

that could be spent studying, but that instead goes to flipping burgers. The customized textbooks,

consequently, hurt these students’ academic learning in a measurable way. Against that reality there’s the

university’s own claim to be a “student-centered” institution. Those words appear untrue, however, if the

university is dragging its own students out of the library and forcing them to work extra hours. To comply

with its own stated ideals—to serve the students’ interests—UA should suspend the kickback textbook

practice. It’s important to do that, finally, because fulfilling promises is valuable; it’s something worth

doing.

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Argument and Counterargument

The conclusion that kickback textbooks turn universities into liars doesn’t end debate on the question. In

fact, because well-developed ethical positions expose their reasoning so openly (as opposed to “it doesn’t

smell right”), they tend to invite responses. One characteristic, in other words, of good ethical arguments

is that, paradoxically but not contradictorily, they tend to provoke counterarguments.

Broadly, there are three ways to dispute an argument in ethics. You can attack the

facts,
values,
reasoning,

In the textbook case, disputing the facts might involve showing that students who need to work a few

extra hours to afford their books don’t subtract that time from their studying; actually, they subtract it

from late-night hours pounding beers in dank campus bars. The academic damage done, therefore, by

kickback textbooks is zero. Pressing this further, if it’s true that increased textbook prices translate into

less student partying, the case could probably be made that the university actually serves students’

interests—at least those who drink too much beer—by jacking up the prices.

The values supporting an argument about kickback textbooks may, like the facts, be disputed. Virginia

Tech, for example, runs a text-customization program like Alabama’s. According to Tech’s English

Department chair Carolyn Rude, the customized books published by Pearson net the department about

$20,000 a year. Some of that cash goes to pay for instructors’ travel stipends. These aren’t luxury retreats

to Las Vegas or Miami; they’re gatherings of earnest professors in dull places for discussions that reliably

put a few listeners to sleep. When instructors—who are frequently graduate students—attend, they’re

looking to burnish their curriculum vitae and get some public responses to their work. Possibly, the trip

will help them get a better academic job later on. Regardless, it won’t do much for the undergraduates at

Virginia Tech. In essence, the undergrads are being asked to pay a bit extra for books to help graduate

students hone their ideas and advance professionally.

Can that tradeoff be justified? With the right values, yes. It must be conceded that Virginia Tech is

probably rupturing a commitment to serve the undergrads’ interest. Therefore, it’s true that a certain

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amount of dishonesty shadows the process of inflating textbook costs. If, however, there’s a higher value

than truth, that won’t matter so much. Take this possibility: what’s right and wrong isn’t determined by

honesty and fidelity to commitments, but the general welfare. The argument here is that while it’s true

that undergrads suffer a bit because they pay extra, the instructors receiving the travel stipends benefit a

lot. Their knowledge grows, their career prospects improve, and in sum, they benefit so much that it

entirely outweighs the harm done to the undergrads. As long as this value—the greatest total good—

frames the assessment of kickback textbooks, the way is clear for Tech or Alabama to continue the

practice. It’s even recommendable.

The final ground on which an ethical argument can be refuted is the reasoning. Here, the facts are

accepted, as well as the value that universities are duty bound to serve the interests of the tuition-paying

undergraduate students since that’s the commitment they make on their web pages. What can still be

debated, however, is the extent to which those students may actually be benefitted by customizing

textbooks. Looking at the Wall Street Journal article, several partially developed arguments are presented

on this front. For example, at Alabama, part of the money collected from the customized texts underwrites

teaching awards, and that, presumably, motivates instructors to perform better in the classroom, which

ends up serving the students’ educational interests. Similarly, at Virginia Tech, part of the revenue is

apportioned to bring in guest speakers, which should advance the undergraduate educational cause. The

broader argument is that while it’s true that the students are paying more for their books than peers at

other universities, the sequence of reasoning doesn’t necessarily lead from that fact to the conclusion that

there’s a reproachable conflict of interest. It can also reach the verdict that students’ educational

experience is improved; instead of a conflict of interest, there’s an elevated commitment to student

welfare inherent in the kickback practice.

Conclusion. There’s no irrefutable answer to the question about whether universities ought to get involved

in kickback textbooks. What is clear, however, is that there’s a difference between responding to them by

asserting that something doesn’t smell right, and responding by uniting facts, values, and reasoning to

produce a substantial ethical argument.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Business ethics deals with values, facts, and arguments.

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 Well-reasoned arguments, by reason of their clarity, invite counterarguments.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What is the difference between brainwashing and an argument?

2. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the facts?

3. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the values?

4. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the reasoning?

[1] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay: Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific

Editions; Barrier to Secondhand Sales,” Wall Street Journal, July 10, 2008, accessed May 11,

2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121565135185141235.html.

[2] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay: Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific

Editions; Barrier to Secondhand Sales,” Wall Street Journal, July 10, 2008, accessed May 11,

2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121565135185141235.html.

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1.2 The Place of Business Ethics

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Distinguish the place of business ethics within the larger field of decision making.

2. Sketch the historical development of business ethics as a coherent discipline.

The Boundaries and History of Business Ethics

Though both economic life and ethics are as old as history, business ethics as a formal area of study is

relatively new. Delineating the specific place of today’s business ethics involves

 distinguishing morality, ethics, and meta-ethics;

 dividing normative from descriptive ethics;

 comparing ethics against other forms of decision making;

 sketching some inflection points in the histories of ethics and business ethics.

Morality, Ethics, and Meta-ethics: What’s the Difference?

The back and forth of debates about kickback textbooks occurs on one of the three distinct levels of

consideration about right and wrong. Morals occupy the lowest level; they’re the direct rules we ought to

follow. Two of the most common moral dictates are don’t lie and don’t steal. Generally, the question to ask

about a moral directive is whether it was obeyed. Specifically in the case of university textbooks, the

debate about whether customized textbooks are a good idea isn’t morality. It’s not because morality

doesn’t involve debates. Morality only involves specific guidelines that should be followed; it only begins

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when someone walks into a school bookstore, locates a book needed for a class, strips out the little

magnetic tag hidden in the spine, and heads for the exit.

Above all morality there’s the broader question about exactly what specific rules should be instituted and

followed. Answering this question is ethics. Ethics is the morality factory, the production of guidelines

that later may be obeyed or violated. It’s not clear today, for example, whether there should be moral rule

prohibiting kickback textbooks. There are good arguments for the prohibition (universities are betraying

their duty to serve students’ interests) and good arguments against (schools are finding innovative sources

of revenue that can be put to good use). For that reason, it’s perfectly legitimate for someone like Ann

Marie Wagoner to stand up at the University of Alabama and decry the practice as wrong. But she’d be

going too far if she accused university administrators of being thieves or immoral. They’re not; they’re on

the other side of an ethical conflict, not a moral one.

Above both morality and ethics there are debates about meta-ethics. These are the most abstract and

theoretical discussions surrounding right and wrong. The questions asked on this level include the

following: Where do ethics come from? Why do we have ethical and moral categories in the first place? To

whom do the rules apply? Babies, for example, steal from each other all the time and no one accuses them

of being immoral or insufficiently ethical. Why is that? Or putting the same question in the longer terms

of human history, at some point somewhere in the past someone must have had a light bulb turn on in

their mind and asked, “Wait, is stealing wrong?” How and why, those interested in meta-ethics ask, did

that happen? Some believe that morality is transcendent in nature—that the rules of right and wrong

come from beyond you and me and that our only job is to receive, learn, and obey them. Divine command

theory, for example, understands earthly morality as a reflection of God. Others postulate that ethics is

very human and social in nature—that it’s something we invented to help us live together in communities.

Others believe there’s something deeply personal in it. When I look at another individual I see in the

depth of their difference from myself a requirement to respect that other person and his or her

uniqueness, and from there, ethics and morality unwind. These kinds of meta-ethical questions, finally,

are customarily studied in philosophy departments.

Conclusion. Morality is the rules, ethics is the making of rules, and meta-ethics concerns the origin of the

entire discussion. In common conversation, the words morality and ethics often overlap. It’s hard to

change the way people talk and, in a practical field like business ethics, fostering the skill of debating

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arguments is more important than being a stickler for words, but it’s always possible to keep in mind that,

strictly speaking, morality and ethics hold distinct meanings.

What’s the Difference between Normative Ethics and Descriptive Ethics?

Business ethics is normative, which means it concerns how people ought to act. Descriptive ethics depicts

how people actually are acting.

At the University of Alabama, Virginia Tech, and anywhere kickback textbooks are being sold, there are

probably a few students who check their bank accounts, find that the number is low, and decide to mount

their own kickback scheme: refund the entire textbook cost to themselves by sneaking a copy out of the

store. Trying to make a decision about whether that’s justified—does economic necessity license theft in

some cases?—is normative ethics. By contrast, investigating to determine the exact number of students

walking out with free books is descriptive. So too is tallying the reasons for the theft: How many steal

because they don’t have the money to pay? How many accuse the university of acting dishonestly in the

first place and say that licenses theft? How many question the entire idea of private property?

The fields of descriptive ethics are many and varied. Historians trace the way penalties imposed for theft

have changed over time. Anthropologists look at the way different cultures respond to thievery.

Sociologists study the way publications, including Abbie Hoffman’s incendiary book titled Steal This

Book, have changed public attitudes about the ethics of theft. Psychologists are curious about the

subconscious forces motivating criminals. Economists ask whether there’s a correlation between

individual wealth and the kind of moral rules subscribed to. None of this depends on the question about

whether stealing may actually be justifiable, but all of it depends on stealing actually happening.

Ethics versus Other Forms of Decision

When students stand in the bookstore flipping through the pages of a budget buster, it’s going to cross a

few minds to stick it in the backpack and do a runner. Should they? Clear-headed ethical reflection may

provide an answer to the question, but that’s not the only way we make decisions in the world. Even in the

face of screaming ethical issues, it’s perfectly possible and frequently reasonable to make choices based on

other factors. They include:

 The law

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 Prudence (practicality)

 Religion

 Authority figures

 Peer pressure

 Custom

 Conscience

When the temptation is there, one way to decide whether to steal a book is legal: if the law says I can’t, I

won’t. Frequently, legal prohibitions overlap with commonly accepted moral rules: few legislators want to

sponsor laws that most believe to be unjust. Still, there are unjust laws. Think of downloading a text (or

music, or a video) from the web. One day the downloading may be perfectly legal and the next, after a bill

is passed by a legislature, it’s illegal. So the law reverses, but there’s no reason to think the ethics—the

values and arguments guiding decisions about downloading—changed in that short time. If the ethics

didn’t change, at least one of the two laws must be ethically wrong. That means any necessary connection

between ethics and the law is broken. Even so, there are clear advantages to making decisions based on

the law. Besides the obvious one that it’ll keep you out of jail, legal rules are frequently cleaner and more

direct than ethical determinations, and that clarity may provide justification for approving (or

disapproving) actions with legal dictates instead of ethical ones. The reality remains, however, that the

two ways of deciding are as distinct as their mechanisms of determination. The law results from the votes

of legislators, the interpretations of judges, and the understanding of a policeman on the scene. Ethical

conclusions result from applied values and arguments.

Religion may also provide a solution to the question about textbook theft. The Ten Commandments, for

example, provide clear guidance. Like the law, most mainstream religious dictates overlap with generally

accepted ethical views, but that doesn’t change the fact that the rules of religion trace back to beliefs and

faith, while ethics goes back to arguments.

Prudence, in the sense of practical concern for your own well-being, may also weigh in and finally guide a

decision. With respect to stealing, regardless of what you may believe about ethics or law or religion, the

possibility of going to jail strongly motivates most people to pay for what they carry out of stores. If that’s

the motivation determining what’s done, then personal comfort and welfare are guiding the decision more

than sweeping ethical arguments.

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Authority figures may be relied on to make decisions: instead of asking whether it’s right to steal a book,

someone may ask themselves, “What would my parents say I should do? Or the soccer coach? Or a movie

star? Or the president?” While it’s not clear how great the overlap is between decisions based on authority

and those coming from ethics, it is certain that following authority implies respecting the experience and

judgment of others, while depending on ethics means relying on your own careful thinking and

determinations.

Urges to conformity and peer pressure also guide decisions. As depicted by the startling and funny Asch

experiments (see Video Clip 1.1), most of us palpably fear being labeled a deviant or just differing from

those around us. So powerful is the attraction of conformity that we’ll deny things clearly seen with our

own eyes before being forced to stand out as distinct from everyone else.

Custom, tradition, and habit all also guide decisions. If you’re standing in the bookstore and you’ve never

stolen a thing in your life, the possibility of appropriating the text may not even occur to you or, if it does,

may seem prohibitively strange. The great advantage of custom or tradition or just doing what we’ve

always done is that it lets us take action without thinking. Without that ability for thoughtlessness, we’d

be paralyzed. No one would make it out of the house in the morning: the entire day would be spent

wondering about the meaning of life and so on. Habits—and the decisions flowing from them—allow us to

get on with things. Ethical decisions, by contrast, tend to slow us down. In exchange, we receive the

assurance that we actually believe in what we’re doing, but in practical terms, no one’s decisions can be

ethically justified all the time.

Finally, the conscience may tilt decisions in one direction or another. This is the gut feeling we have about

whether swiping the textbook is the way to go, coupled with the expectation that the wrong decision will

leave us remorseful, suffering palpable regret about choosing to do what we did. Conscience,

fundamentally, is a feeling; it starts as an intuition and ends as a tugging, almost sickening sensation in

the stomach. As opposed to those private sensations, ethics starts from facts and ends with a reasoned

argument that can be publicly displayed and compared with the arguments others present. It’s not clear,

even to experts who study the subject, exactly where the conscience comes from, how we develop it, and

what, if any, limits it should place on our actions. Could, for example, a society come into existence where

people stole all the time and the decision to not shoplift a textbook carries with it the pang of remorse? It’s

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hard to know for sure. It’s clear, however, that ethics is fundamentally social: it’s about right and wrong as

those words emerge from real debates, not inner feelings.

History and Ethics

Conflicts, along with everything necessary to approach them ethically (mainly the ability to generate and

articulate reasoned thoughts), are as old as the first time someone was tempted to take something from

another. For that reason, there’s no strict historical advance to the study: there’s no reason to confidently

assert that the way we do ethics today is superior to the way we did it in the past. In that way, ethics isn’t

like the physical sciences where we can at least suspect that knowledge of the world yields technology

allowing more understanding, which would’ve been impossible to attain earlier on. There appears to be, in

other words, marching progress in science. Ethics doesn’t have that. Still, a number of critical historical

moments in ethics’ history can be spotted.

In ancient Greece, Plato presented the theory that we could attain a general knowledge of justice that

would allow a clear resolution to every specific ethical dilemma. He meant something like this: Most of us

know what a chair is, but it’s hard to pin down. Is something a chair if it has four legs? No, beds have four

legs and some chairs (barstools) have only three. Is it a chair if you sit on it? No, that would make the

porch steps in front of a house a chair. Nonetheless, because we have the general idea of a chair in our

mind, we can enter just about any room in any home and know immediately where we should sit. What

Plato proposed is that justice works like that. We have—or at least we can work toward getting—a general

idea of right and wrong, and when we have the idea, we can walk into a concrete situation and correctly

judge what the right course of action is.

Moving this over to the case of Ann Marie Wagoner, the University of Alabama student who’s outraged by

her university’s kickback textbooks, she may feel tempted, standing there in the bookstore, to make off

with a copy. The answer to the question of whether she ought to do that will be answered by the general

sense of justice she’s been able to develop and clarify in her mind.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a distinct idea of fundamental ethics took hold: natural

rights. The proposal here is that individuals are naturally and undeniably endowed with rights to their

own lives, their freedom, and to pursue happiness as they see fit. As opposed to the notion that certain

acts are firmly right or wrong, proponents of this theory—including John Locke and framers of the new

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American nation—proposed that individuals may sort things out as they please as long as their decisions

and actions don’t interfere with the right of others to do the same. Frequently understood as a theory of

freedom maximization, the proposition is that your freedom is only limited by the freedoms others

possess.

For Wagoner, this way of understanding right and wrong provides little immediate hope for changing

textbook practices at the University of Alabama. It’s difficult to see how the university’s decision to assign

a certain book at a certain price interferes with Wagoner’s freedom. She can always choose to not

purchase the book, to buy one of the standard versions at Amazon, or to drop the class. What she

probably can’t justify choosing, within this theory, is responding to the kickback textbooks by stealing a

copy. Were she to do that, it would violate another’s freedom, in this case, the right of the university (in

agreement with a publisher) to offer a product for sale at a price they determine.

A third important historical direction in the history of ethics originated with the proposal that what you

do doesn’t matter so much as the effects of what you do. Right and wrong are found in the consequences

following an action, not in the action itself. In the 1800s John Stuart Mill and others advocated the idea

that any act benefitting the general welfare was recommendable and ethically respectable.

Correspondingly, any act harming a community’s general happiness should be avoided. Decisions

about good or bad, that means, don’t focus on what happens now but what comes later, and they’re not

about the one person making the decision but the consequences as they envelop a larger community.

For someone like Wagoner who’s angry about the kickback money hidden in her book costs, this

consequence-centered theory opens the door to a dramatic action. She may decide to steal a book from the

bookstore and, after alerting a reporter from the student newspaper of her plan, promptly turn herself

into the authorities as a form of protest. “I stole this book,” she could say, “but that’s nothing compared

with the theft happening every day on this campus by our university.” This plan of action may work out—

or maybe not. But in terms of ethics, the focus should be on the theft’s results, not the fact that she

sneaked a book past security. The ethical verdict here is not about whether robbery is right or wrong but

whether the protest stunt will ultimately improve university life. If it does, we can say that the original

theft was good.

Finally, ethics is like most fields of study in that it has been accompanied from the beginning by skeptics,

by people suspecting that either there is no real right and wrong or, even if there is, we’ll never have much

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luck figuring out the difference. The twentieth century has been influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche’s

affirmation that moral codes (and everything else, actually) are just interpretations of reality that may be

accepted now, but there’s no guarantee things will remain that way tomorrow. Is stealing a textbook right

or wrong? According to this view, the answer always is, “It depends.” It depends on the circumstances, on

the people involved and how well they can convince others to accept one or another verdict. In practical

terms, this view translates into a theory of cultural or contextual relativism. What’s right and wrong only

reflects what a particular person or community decides to believe at a certain moment, and little more.

The Historical Development of Business Ethics

The long philosophical tradition of ethical thought contains the subfield of business ethics. Business

ethics, in turn, divides between ethics practiced by people who happen to be in business and business

ethics as a coherent and well-defined academic pursuit.

People in business, like everyone else, have ethical dimensions to their lives. For example, the company

W. R. Grace was portrayed in the John Travolta movie A Civil Action as a model of bad corporate

behavior. [1] What not so many people know, however, is that the corporation’s founder, the man named

W. R. Grace, came to America in the nineteenth century, found success, and dedicated a significant

percentage of his profits to a free school for immigrants that still operates today.

Even though questions stretch deep into the past about what responsibilities companies and their leaders

may have besides generating profits, the academic world began seriously concentrating on the subject

only very recently. The first full-scale professional conference on academic business ethics occurred in

1974 at the University of Kansas. A textbook was derived from the meeting, and courses began appearing

soon after at some schools.

By 1980 some form of a unified business ethics course was offered at many of the nation’s colleges and

universities.

Academic discussion of ethical issues in business was fostered by the appearance of several specialized

journals, and by the mid-1990s, the field had reached maturity. University classes were widespread,

allowing new people to enter the study easily. A core set of ideas, approaches, and debates had been

established as central to the subject, and professional societies and publications allowed for advanced

research in and intellectual growth of the field.

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The development of business ethics inside universities corresponded with increasing public awareness of

problems associated with modern economic activity, especially on environmental and financial fronts. In

the late 1970s, the calamity in the Love Canal neighborhood of Niagara Falls, New York, focused

international attention on questions about a company’s responsibility to those living in the surrounding

community and to the health of the natural world. The Love Canal’s infamy began when a chemical

company dumped tons of toxic waste into the ground before moving away. Despite the company’s

warnings about the land’s toxicity, residential development spread over the area. Birth defects and similar

maladies eventually devastated the families. Not long afterward and on the financial front, an insider

trading scandal involving the Wall Street titan Ivan Boesky made front pages, which led John Shad,

former head of the Securities and Exchange Commission, to donate $20 million to his business school

alma mater for the purpose of ethics education. Parallel (though usually more modest) money infusions

went to university philosophy departments. As a discipline, business ethics naturally bridges the two

divisions of study since the theory and tools for resolving ethical problems come from philosophy, but the

problems for solving belong to the real economic world.

Today, the most glamorous issues of business ethics involve massively powerful corporations and

swashbuckling financiers. Power and celebrity get people’s attention. Other, more tangible issues don’t

appear in so many headlines, but they’re just as important to study since they directly reach so many of

us: What kind of career is worth pursuing? Should I lie on my résumé? How important is money?

The Personal History of Ethics

Moving from academics to individual people, almost every adult does business ethics. Every time people

shake their exhausted heads in the morning, eye the clock, and decide whether they’ll go to work or just

pull up the covers, they’re making a decision about what values guide their economic reality. The way

ethics is done, however, changes from person to person and for all of us through our lives. There’s no

single history of ethics as individuals live it, but there’s a broad consensus that for many people, the

development of their ethical side progresses in a way not too far off from a general scheme proposed by

the psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg.

Pre-conventional behavior—displayed by children, but not only by them—is about people calculating to

get what they want efficiently: decisions are made in accordance with raw self-interest. That’s why many

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children really do behave better near the end of December. It’s not that they’ve suddenly been struck by

respect for others and the importance of social rules; they just figure they’ll get more and better presents.

Moving up through the conventional stages, the idea of what you’ll do separates from what you want.

First, there are immediate conventions that may pull against personal desires; they include standards and

pressures applied by family and friends. Next, more abstract conventions—the law and mass social

customs—assert influence.

Continuing upward, the critical stages of moral development go from recognizing abstract conventions to

actively and effectively comparing them. The study of business ethics belongs on this high level of

individual maturity. Value systems are held up side by side, and reasons are erected for selecting one over

another. This is the ethics of full adulthood; it requires good reasoning and experience in the real world.

Coextensive with the development of ideas about what we ought to do are notions about responsibility—

about justifiably blaming people for what they’ve done. Responsibility at the lowest level is physical. The

person who stole the book is responsible because they took it. More abstractly, responsibility attaches to

notions of causing others to do a wrong (enticing someone else to steal a book) and not doing something

that could have prevented a wrong (not acting to dissuade another who’s considering theft is, ultimately, a

way of acting). A mature assignment of responsibility is normally taken to require that the following

considerations hold:

 The person is able to understand right and wrong.

 The person acts to cause—or fails to act to prevent—a wrong.

 The person acts knowing what they’re doing.

 The person acts from their own free will.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Morality is the set of rules defining what ought to be done; ethics is the debate about what the rules

should be; meta-ethics investigates the origin of the entire field.

 Normative ethics concerns what should be done, not what is done.

 Ethics is only one of a number of ways of making decisions.

 Business ethics as an academic study is a recent development in the long history of ethical reflection.

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 With respect to individuals, the development of ethical thought may be studied, as well as notions of

responsibility.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. List two basic questions belonging to the field of morality.

2. List two basic questions belonging to the field of ethics.

3. What is one basic question belonging to the field of meta-ethics?

4. What is an example of normative ethics? And descriptive ethics?

5. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and one based on the law.

6. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and one based on religion.

7. List two factors explaining the recent development and growth of business ethics as a coherent discipline.

[1] Steven Zaillian (director), A Civil Action (New York: Scott Rudin, 1998), film.

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1.3 Is Business Ethics Necessary?

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Articulate two extreme views of business ethics.

2. Describe the sense in which business ethics is inevitable.

Two Extreme Views of the Business World

At the boundaries of the question about whether business ethics is necessary, there are conflicting and

extreme perceptions of the business world. In graphic terms, these are the views:

 Business needs policing because it’s a dirty enterprise featuring people who get ahead by being selfish

liars.

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 Successful businesses work well to enrich society, and business ethicists are interfering and annoying

scolds threatening to ruin our economic welfare.

A 1987 New York Times article titled “Suddenly, Business Schools Tackle Ethics” begins this way:

“Insider-trading scandals in the last year have badly tarnished the reputations of some of the nation’s

most prominent financial institutions. Nor has Wall Street been the only area engulfed in scandal;

manufacturers of products from contraceptives to military weapons have all come under public scrutiny

recently for questionable—if not actionable—behavior.” [1]

Slimy dealing verging on the illegal, the message is, stains the economic world from one end to the other.

A little further into the article, the author possibly gives away her deepest feelings about business when

she cracks that business ethics is “an oxymoron.”

What will business leaders—and anyone else for that matter—do when confronted with the accusation of

sliminess? Possibly embrace it—an attitude facilitated by an infamous article originally published in

the Harvard Business Review. In “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?” the author suggests businessmen and

women should double down on the strategy of getting ahead through deceit because if you’re in business,

then everyone already knows you’re a liar anyway. And since that’s common knowledge, taking liberties

with the truth doesn’t even count as lying: there’s no moral problem because that’s just the way the

business game is played. In the author’s words, “Falsehood ceases to be falsehood when it is understood

on all sides that the truth is not expected to be spoken—an exact description of bluffing in poker,

diplomacy, and business.” [2]

The basic argument is strong. Ethically, dishonesty stops being reproachable—it stops being an attempt to

mislead—when everyone knows that you’re not telling the truth. If it weren’t for that loophole, it’d be

difficult to enjoy movies. Spiderman swinging through New York City skyscrapers isn’t a lie, it’s just fun

because everyone agrees from the beginning that the truth doesn’t matter on the screen.

The problem with applying this logic to the world of commerce, however, is that the original agreement

isn’t there. It’s not true that in business everyone knows there’s lying and accepts it. In poker, presumably,

the players choosing to sit down at the table have familiarized themselves with the rules and techniques of

the game and, yes, do expect others to fake a good hand from time to time. It’s easy to show, however, that

the expectation doesn’t generally hold in office buildings, stores, showrooms, and sales pitches. Take, for

example, a car advertisement claiming a certain model has a higher resale value, has a lower sticker price,

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or can go from zero to sixty faster than its competition. People in the market for a new car take those

claims seriously. If they’re prudent, they’ll check just to make sure (an economic form of “trust but

verify”), but it’s pretty rare that someone sitting in front of the TV at home chuckles and calls the claim

absurd. In poker, on the other hand, if another player makes a comparable claim (“I have the highest hand

at the table!”), people just laugh and tell the guy to keep drinking. Poker isn’t like business.

The argument that bluffing—lying—in business is acceptable because everyone does it and everyone

knows everyone’s doing it doesn’t hold up. However, the fact that someone could seriously make the

argument (and get it published in the Harvard Business Review no less) certainly provides heavy

ammunition for those who believe that most high-level businesspeople—like those who read the Harvard

Business Review—should have a hard time looking at themselves in the mirror in the morning.

Opposing the view that business life is corrupt and needs serious ethical policing, there’s the view that

economic enterprises provide wealth for our society while correcting their own excesses and problems

internally. How does the correction work? Through the marketplace. The pressures of demanding

consumers force companies into reputable behavior. If a car manufacturer lies about its product, there

may be a brief uptick in sales, but eventually people will figure out what’s going on, spread the word at the

water cooler and on Facebook, and in the end the company’s sales will collapse. Similarly, bosses that

abuse and mistreat subordinates will soon find that no one wants to work for them. Workers who cheat on

expense reports or pocket money from the till will eventually get caught and fired. Of course it must be

admitted that some people sometimes do get away with something, but over the long run, the forces of the

economic world inexorably correct abuses.

If this vision of business reality is correct, then adding another layer of academic ethics onto what’s

already going on in the real world isn’t necessary. More, those who insist on standing outside corporate

offices and factory buildings preaching the need for oversight and remedial classes in morality become

annoying nags. That’s especially true if the critics aren’t directly doing business themselves. If they’re

ensconced in university towers and gloomy libraries, there may even be a suspicion that what really drives

the call to ethics is a burning resentment of all the money Wall Street stars and captains of industry seem

to make, along with their flashy cars, palatial homes, and luxurious vacations.

An issue of the Cato Institute’s Policy Report from 2000 carries an article titled “Business Ethics Gone

Wrong.” It asserts that some proponents of business ethics aren’t only bothersome envious—their

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resentment-fueled scolding actually threatens our collective economic welfare. Business ethics, according

to the author, “is fundamentally antagonistic to capitalist enterprise, viewing both firm and manager as

social parasites in need of a strong reformative hand.”[3]

These reforms—burdensome regulations, prying investigations, and similar ethical interventions—

threaten to gum up the capitalist engine: “If the market economy and its cornerstone, the shareholderoriented

firm, are in no danger of being dealt a decisive blow, they at least risk death by a thousand

cuts.” [4]

There’s a problem with this perspective on the business world. Even if, for the sake of argument, it’s

acknowledged that economic forces effectively police commerce, that doesn’t mean business ethics is

unnecessary or a threat to the market economy. The opposite is the case: the view that the marketplace

solves most problems is an ethics. It’s a form of egoism, a theory to be developed in later chapters but with

values and rules that can be rapidly sketched here. What are most valued from this perspective is our

individual welfare and the freedom to pursue it without guilt or remorse. With that freedom, however,

comes a responsibility to acknowledge that others may be guided by the same rules and therefore we’re all

bound by the responsibility to look out for ourselves and actively protect our own interests since no one

will be doing it for us. This isn’t to confirm that all businesspeople are despicable liars, but it does mean

asserting that the collective force of self-interest produces an ethically respectable reality. Right and

wrong comes to be defined by the combined force of cautious, self-interested producers and consumers.

In the face of this argument defending a free-for-all economic reality where everyone is doing the best

they can for themselves while protecting against others doing the same, objections may be constructed. It

could be argued, for example, that the modern world is too complex for consumers to adequately protect

their own interests all the time. No matter how that issue gets resolved, however, the larger fact remains

that trusting in the marketplace is a reasonable and defensible ethical posture; it’s a commitment to a set

of values and facts and their combination in an argument affirming that the free market works to

effectively resolve its own problems.

Conclusion. It’s not true that doing business equals being deceitful, so it’s false to assert that business

ethics is necessary to cure the ills of commerce. It is true that the business world may be left to control its

own excesses through marketplace pressure, but that doesn’t mean business escapes ethics.

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Business Ethics Is Inevitable

Business ethics is not about scolding, moralizing, or telling people to be nice. Ethics doesn’t have to be

annoying or intrusive. On the other hand, it can’t just be dismissed altogether because ethics in business is

unavoidable. The values guiding our desires and aspirations are there whether they’re revealed or not.

They must be because no one can do anything without first wanting something. If you don’t have a goal,

something you’re trying to achieve or get, then you won’t have anything to do when you get out of bed in

the morning. Getting up in the morning and going, consequently, mean that you’ve already selected

something as desirable, valuable, and worth pursuing. And that’s doing ethics; it’s establishing values.

The only real and durable difference, therefore, between those who understand ethics and those who don’t

is that the former achieve a level of self-understanding about what they want: they’ve compared their

values with other possibilities and molded their actions to their decisions. The latter are doing the same

thing, just without fully realizing it. The question about whether ethics is necessary, finally, becomes a

false one. You can choose to not understand the ethics you’re doing (you can always drop this class), but

you can’t choose to not do ethics.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Views about the ethical nature of the business vary widely.

 Because ethics is the arrangement of values guiding our aspirations and actions, some form of ethics is

unavoidable for anyone acting in the economic world.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Why might someone believe the business world needs exterior ethical monitoring and correction?

2. What is the argument that the business world can regulate itself, and why is that an ethics?

3. In your own words, why is business ethics unavoidable?

[1] Sandra Salmans, “Suddenly, Business Schools Tackle Ethics,” New York Times, August 2, 1987, accessed May 11,

2011, http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/education/suddenly-business-schools-tackle-ethics.html.

[2] Albert Carr, “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?,” Harvard Business Review 46 (January–February, 1968), 143–53.

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[3] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May

11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr-22n3.html.

[4] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May

11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr-22n3.html.

1.4 Facebook and the Unavoidability of Business Ethics

L EARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Show how business ethics stretches beyond working life.

The Facebook Firing

Business ethics in some form is inescapable inside factories, office buildings, and other places where work

gets done. The application of business ethics principles and guidance doesn’t stop, though, when the

workday ends or outside the company door. Because our economic lives mingle so intimately with our

private existences, the decisions and reasoning shaping our laboring eventually shape our lives generally.

Business ethics, as the problems bedeviling Dawnmarie Souza show, provides a way to examine and make

sense of a large segment of our time, both on and off the job.

Souza’s problems started when the ambulance she worked on picked up a “17.” That’s code for a

psychiatric case. This particular 17, as it happened, wasn’t too crazy to form and submit a complaint about

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the treatment received from Souza. Since this was the second grievance the ambulance service had

received on Souza in only ten days, she sensed that she’d be getting a suspension. “Looks like,” she wrote

on her Facebook page later that day, “I’m getting some time off. Love how the company allows a 17 to be a

supervisor.” She also referred to her real supervisor with some choice four-letter words.

A number of coworkers responded to her post with their own supportive and agreeing comments.

Management responded by firing her.

The termination decision came easily to the ambulance service, American Medical Response of

Connecticut, since their policy explicitly prohibited employees from identifying or discussing the company

or other employees in the uncontrolled public forum that is the Internet. Around the water cooler, at

home, or during weekend parties, people can say what they like. Given the semi-permanent record that is

the web, however, and the ambulance service’s natural inclination to protect its public image, posting

there was out of bounds.

But, Souza responded, there’s no difference. If people can talk at the water cooler and parties, why can’t

they post on Facebook? She’s not claiming to speak for the company, she’s just venting with a keypad

instead of vocal chords.

The celebrity blogger and Facebook addict Perez Hilton came down on the company’s side: “We think

Dawnmarie should be fired, and we support the company’s decision to let her go. When you post things

online, it’s out there for the public to see, and it’s a sign of disloyalty and disrespect to deal with a workrelated

grievance in such a manner.” [1]

The Reach of Business Ethics

When someone like Perez Hilton—a blogger most comfortable deriding celebrities’ bad hair days—finds

himself wrapped in a business ethics debate, you’ve got to figure the discipline is pretty much

unavoidable. Regardless, the Souza episode displays many of the ways business ethics connects with our

nonworking existence, whether we like it or not:

 It doesn’t sound like Souza displayed any great passion about her job. Maybe she really doesn’t care that

she got fired. Or maybe she cares but only because it means a lost paycheck. On the other hand, it may

just have been a bad day; it’s possible that she usually gets up in the morning eager to mount the

ambulance. It’s hard to know, but it’s certain that this—the decision about what we want to do with our

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professional lives—is business ethics. When choosing a job, what has value? The money it provides?

Satisfaction from helping others? Status? Or do you just want something that gives you the most free time

possible? There are no rights or wrong answers, but these are all ethical decisions tangling your personal

and professional lives together.

 The mix between the personal and professional on the question of one’s job tends to link tighter as people

get older. Many of us define who we and others are through work. When finding out about someone new,

the question—embraced by some and dreaded by others—inevitably comes up. When meeting a woman at

a party, when being sent on a blind date, or when discussing old high school friends or the guy who just

moved into the next-door apartment, the question hums just below the surface, and it’s never long until

someone comes out and asks. Of course, for collegians and young people working part-time jobs, it

doesn’t matter so much because everyone knows that where you work isn’t where you’ll end up working.

Once someone hits the mid-twenties, though, the question “what do you do?” starts to press and it won’t

let up.

 Perez Hilton wrote that Souza displayed disloyalty to her company when she trashed the management on

Facebook. The following questions are raised: What is loyalty? What is it worth? When should you feel it?

When do you have a right to demand it from others? Is there any difference among loyalty to the

company, to family, and to friends?

 One of Hilton’s readers posted a pithy response to Hilton in the web page’s comments section: “I bet if she

were gay, and did the same exact thing, you would be singing a different tune!” Perez Hilton, it’s widely

known, is about as exuberantly gay as they come. As it happens, in his line of work that orientation isn’t

professionally harmful. For others, however, the revelation may be career damaging. Hilton, in fact, is

despised by some in Hollywood for his habit of outing gay celebrities, people who hide part of themselves

in the name of furthering their career. The business ethics question here is also a life one. Would you hide

who you are to facilitate things at work? Should you? Doesn’t everyone do that to some extent and in some

ways?

 Another reader posted this comment: “In the US, your employer owns you. I mean they can make you piss

in a cup to check and see what you did over the weekend.” Should employers be able to change what you

do over the weekend?

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 A number of readers defended Souza by upholding the right to free speech—she should be able to say

whatever she wants wherever she wants without fear of retribution. In response to those assertions, this

was posted, “Of course we have freedom of speech. Employers also have the freedom to employ whoever

they wish. Your decision is whether whatever is on your mind is more important than your job.” Does

freedom of speech—or any other basic liberty—end or get conditioned when the workday begins?

 One commenter wrote, “I’m going to have to agree with the company on this one. An employer expects

proper business demeanor even while off the clock.” What is “proper demeanor”? Who decides? On the

basis of what?

 Many people spend eight (or more) hours a day on the job. There’s no shortage of women who see their

boss more than their husband, of men who remember the birthday of the guy in the next cubicle before

their own child’s. Parties tend to include workmates; companies invite clients to ball games. The sheer

hours spent at work, along with the large overlaps between professional and social relationships, make

separating the ethics of the office and the home nearly impossible.

 This comment is aimed right at Perez Hilton and his Internet gossip column, which wins few points for

checking and confirming claims but definitely gets the juicy and embarrassing rumors out about the

private lives of celebrities: “Are you insane? All you did for God knows how long is put nasty stuff up

about people for the public to see as a sign of disloyalty and disrespect.” Assuming that’s a reasonable

depiction of Hilton’s work, the question his career raises is: what are you willing to do to the lives of

others to get yourself ahead at work?

Underlining all these questions is a distinction that’s easy to make in theory but difficult to maintain in

real life. It’s one betweeninstitutional business ethics and personal business ethics. Institutional ethics in

business deals with large questions in generic and anonymous terms. The rules and discussions apply to

most organizations and to individuals who could be anyone. Should companies be allowed to pollute the

air? What counts as a firing offense? The personal level, by contrast, fills with questions for specific people

enmeshed in the details of their particular lives. If Perez Hilton has gotten rich dishing dirt on others, is

he allowed to assert that others must treat their employers respectfully?

KEY TAKEAWAY

 The questions pursued by business ethics cross back and forth between professional and personal lives.

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REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What are two reasons business ethics decisions tend to affect lives outside work?

2. What are two ways business ethics decisions may affect lives outside work?

[1] “Facebook-Related Firing Sparks Legal Drama!,” PerezHilton.com (blog), accessed May 11,

2011, http://perezhilton.com/2010-11-09-woman-fired-over-comments- she-made-about-her-boss-on-facebookbrings-

about-court-case#respond.

1.5 Overview of The Business Ethics Workshop

This textbook is organized into three clusters of chapters. The first group develops and explains the main

theories guiding thought in business ethics. The goals are to clarify the theoretical tools that may be used

to make decisions and to display how arguments can be built in favor of one stance and against others.

The questions driving the chapters include the following:

 Are there fundamental rules for action that directly tell us what we ought to do? If so, are the imperatives

very specific, including dictates like “don’t lie”? Or are they more flexible, more like rules broadly

requiring fairness and beneficence to others?

 Are fundamental rights—especially the conviction that we’re all free to pursue the destinies we choose—

the key to thinking about ethics? If we have these rights, what happens when my free pursuit of happiness

conflicts with yours?

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 Could it be that what we do doesn’t matter so much as the effects of what’s done? How can a framework

for decisions be constructed around the idea that we ought to undertake whatever action is necessary

(even lying or stealing) in order to bring about a positive end, something like the greater happiness of

society overall?

 To what extent are perspectives on right and wrong only expressions of the particular culture we live in?

Does it makes sense to say that certain acts—say bribery—are OK in some countries but wrong in others?

The second cluster of chapters investigates business ethics on the level of the individual. The goal is to

show how the tools of ethical reasoning may be applied to personal decisions made in connection with our

nine-to-five lives. The questions driving the chapters include the following:

 What values come into play when a career path is selected?

 Can I justify lying on my résumé? How far am I willing to go to get a raise or promotion?

 Besides a paycheck, what benefits will I seek at work? Money from a kickback? An office romance?

 What do I owe my employer? Is there loyalty in business, or is there nothing more than the money I’m

paid and the duties I’m assigned according to my work contract?

 Do I have an obligation to report on someone else doing something I think is wrong?

 If people work for me, what responsibilities do I have toward them inside and outside the office?

 What values govern the way I hire, promote, and fire workers?

The third cluster of chapters considers institutional business ethics. These are general and sweeping

issues typically involving corporations, the work environments they promote, and the actions they take in

the economic world. Guiding questions include the following:

 What counts as condemnable discrimination in the workplace, and what remedies ought to be tried?

 Which attitudes, requirements, and restrictions should attach to sex and drugs in the workplace?

 Should there be limits to marketing techniques and strategies? Is there anything wrong with creating

consumer needs? What relationships should corporations form with their consumers?

 Do corporations hold ethical responsibilities to the larger community in which they operate, to the people

who aren’t employees or consumers but live nearby?

 Is there a corporate responsibility to defend the planet’s environmental health?

 Should the economic world be structured to produce individually successful stars or to protect the welfare

of laboring collectives?

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1.6 Case Studies

Gray Matters

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Source: Photo courtesy of Sasha Wolff, http://www.flickr.com/photos/sashawolff/3388815964.

To foster ethical discussion and understanding in the workplace, the Lockheed Martin Company

developed a quiz for employees called “Gray Matters.” The quiz is multiple choices, with a range of points

awarded (or subtracted) depending on the response. Subsequently, the approach has been adopted by a

wide range of corporations. Here’s a typical question matched with its possible answers and the

corresponding points:

Six months after you hired an assistant accountant who has been working competently and

responsibly, you learn that she departed from the truth on her employment application: she

claimed she had a college degree when she didn’t. You’re her manager; what should you do?

1. Nothing because she’s doing her job just fine. (–10 points)

2. Bring the issue to the human resources department to determine exactly how company policy

determines the situation should be handled. (10 points)

3. Fire her for lying. (5 points)

4. Carefully weigh her work performance, her length of service, and her potential benefit to the

company before informing anyone of what happened or making any recommendations. (0

points)

QUE STIONS

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1. The three principle components of business ethics are facts, values, and arguments. What are the facts

pertinent to an ethical evaluation of this case? Is there any information not contained in the question that

you’d like to have before making a decision about what should be done?

2. From the facts and information provided, can you sketch a set of values and chain of reasoning justifying

the answer that the quiz’s original authors sanctioned as the right one? (Leave the decision in the hands of

the HR department and existing company policy.)

3. You get some points for C (firing her). What values and reasoning may lead to that determination?

4. According to the quiz authors, the worst answer is A. Maybe they’re wrong, though. What values and

reasoning may lead to the conclusion that doing “nothing because she’s doing her job just fine” is an

excellent response?

5. One of the most important questions about a situation’s facts is “who’s involved?”

o Would it be reasonable to say that, ethically, this is an issue just between you and the woman who

you hired after she lied on her résumé?

o If you expand the answer about who’s involved to include other workmates at the company, as

well as the company’s clients and shareholders, does that change the ethical perspective you have

on what should be done with the lying (but capable) coworker?

6. What’s the difference between morality and ethics?

o Would you categorize response B (bring the issue to HR to determine exactly how company policy

determines the situation should be handled) as leading to a decision more based on morality or

more based on ethics? Explain.

o Would you categorize response D (carefully weigh her work performance, her length of service,

and her potential benefit to the company before informing anyone of what happened or making

any recommendations) as leading to a decision more based on morality or ethics? Explain.

Who made your iPhone?

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Source: Photo courtesy of Tobias Myrstrand Leander, http://www.flickr.com/photos/s8an/5207806926/.

Connie Guglielmo, a reporter for Bloomberg news services, begins an article on Apple this way: “Apple

Inc. said three of its suppliers hired 11 underage workers to help build the iPhone, iPod and Macintosh

computer last year, a violation it uncovered as part of its onsite audit of 102 factories.” [1]

Her story adds details. The underage workers were fifteen in places where the minimum legal age for

employment is sixteen. She wasn’t able to discover the specific countries, but learned the infractions

occurred in one or more of the following: China, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, the

Czech Republic, and the Philippines.

Following the discovery, the employees were released, and disciplinary action was taken against a number

of the foreign suppliers. In one case, Apple stopped contracting with the company entirely.

The story closes with this: “Apple raised $2.62 to $204.62 yesterday in Nasdaq Stock Market trading. The

shares more than doubled last year.”

QUE STIONS

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1. The ethical question is whether Apple ought to contract (through suppliers) fifteen-year-olds to work on

factory floors. Is the fact that the stock price has been zooming up a pertinent fact, or does it not affect

the ethics? Explain.

2. From the information given and reasonable assumptions about these factories and the living conditions of

people working inside them, sketch an ethical argument against Apple enforcing the age workplace rule.

What fundamental values underwrite the argument?

3. From the information given and reasonable assumptions about these factories and the living conditions of

people working inside them, sketch an argument in favor of Apple enforcing the age workplace rule. What

fundamental values underwrite the argument?

4. Within the context of the Apple situation, what’s the difference between making a decision in terms of the

law and in terms of ethics?

5. Assume that in the countries where fifteen-year-olds were working, it’s customary for children

even younger to earn an adult-type living.

o What is an advantage of following the local customs when making economic decisions like the one

confronting Apple?

o Does the custom of employing young workers in some countries change your ethical consideration

of the practice in those places? Why or why not?

6. Attributing responsibility—blaming another for doing wrong—requires that the following

conditions hold:

o The person is able to understand right and wrong.

o The person acts to cause (or fails to act to prevent) a wrong.

o The person acts knowing what they’re doing.

o The person acts from their own free will.

Assuming it’s unethical for fifteen-year-olds to work factory shifts making iPhones, who bears

responsibility for the wrong?

o Do the fifteen-year-olds bear some responsibility? Explain.

o Does Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple? Explain.

o Are shareholders guilty? Explain.

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o Do people who use iPhones bear responsibility? Explain.

I Swear

Since 2006, students at the Columbia Business School have been required to pledge “I adhere to the

principles of truth, integrity, and respect. I will not lie, cheat, steal, or tolerate those who do.”

This is a substantial promise, but it doesn’t sound like it’ll create too many tremendous burdens or require

huge sacrifices.

A somewhat more demanding pledge solidified in 2010 when a group of business school students from

Columbia, Duke Fuqua, Harvard, MIT Sloan, NYU Stern, Rensselaer Lally, Thunderbird, UNC Kenan-

Flagler, and Yale met to formalize the following MBA Oath:

As a business leader I recognize my role in society.

 My purpose is to lead people and manage resources to create value that no single individual can

create alone.

 My decisions affect the well-being of individuals inside and outside my enterprise, today and

tomorrow.

Therefore, I promise that:

 I will manage my enterprise with loyalty and care, and will not advance my personal interests at

the expense of my enterprise or society.

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 I will understand and uphold, in letter and spirit, the laws and contracts governing my conduct

and that of my enterprise.

 I will refrain from corruption, unfair competition, or business practices harmful to society.

 I will protect the human rights and dignity of all people affected by my enterprise, and I will

oppose discrimination and exploitation.

 I will protect the right of future generations to advance their standard of living and enjoy a

healthy planet.

 I will report the performance and risks of my enterprise accurately and honestly.

 I will invest in developing myself and others, helping the management profession continue to

advance and create sustainable and inclusive prosperity.

In exercising my professional duties according to these principles, I recognize that my behavior

must set an example of integrity, eliciting trust and esteem from those I serve. I will remain

accountable to my peers and to society for my actions and for upholding these standards. [2]

QUE STIONS

1. The second introductory clause of the MBA Oath is “My decisions affect the well-being of individuals inside

and outside my enterprise, today and tomorrow.” [3] What’s the difference between seeing this as a

positive ethical stand in favor of a broad social responsibility held by those in business, and seeing it as

arrogance?

2. Looking at the MBA Oath, can you list a set of values that are probably shared by those responsible for its

creation?

3. All this pledging and oathing suddenly popping up at business schools drew the attention of

the New York Times, and soon after, an article appeared: “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality.”[4] Many of the readers’ comments at the end are interesting. The commenter paulnyc

writes that “most students go to MBA programs to advance their careers and to earn more

money, pure and simple, and there is nothing wrong with it.” [5]

o What values underlie paulnyc’s perspective?

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o How is paulnyc’s vision different from the one espoused in the oath?

4. The commenter JerryNY wrote, “Greed IS good as long as it is paired with the spirit of fairness.

Virtually all of the major advances in science and technology were made with greed as one of the

motivating factors. Gugliemo [sic] Marconi, Alexander Graham Bell, Bill Gates, Henry Ford and

Steve Jobs would not have given us the life changing technological advances of our time were it

not for personal greed. Remove that element, and your class is destined for mediocrity.” [6]

Is it plausible to assert that JerryNY shares most of the values of those who wrote the MBA Oath,

it’s just that he sees a different business attitude as the best way to serve those values? If so,

explain. If not, why not?

5. Eric writes,

I would refuse to take that oath…on principle. The idea that an individual’s proper motive

should be to serve “the greater good” is highly questionable. This altruistic ethic is what

supported the collectivist of communism and National Socialism. If my life belongs first and

foremost to “the greater good,” it follows that the greatest virtue is to live as a slave. A

slave’s existence, after all, is devoted primarily for the benefit of his master. The master can

be a plantation owner or a King or an oligarchy or a society that demands your servitude.

The only oath I’d be willing to take is, “I swear, by my life and my love of it, that I will never

live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine.” [7]

In your own words, contrast the values the MBA Oath supporters espouse with the values the

commenter Eric espouses.

6. The commenter Clyde Wynant is skeptical. He writes this about those who take the MBA Oath:

“Call me hyper-cynical, but I can’t help wondering if a lot of these kids aren’t hoping that having

this ‘pledge’ on their résumé might help them look good.” [8]

Is it unethical to take the pledge without expecting to adhere to it simply because you think it will

help in your job search, or is that strategy just a different kind of ethics? Explain.

7. The commenter Mikhail is skeptical. He writes, “Give me a break…With the next upswing of the

economy, these leeches will be sucking the lifeblood out of our collective economies like the

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champions they truly are!!! Yes, perhaps opportunistic parasites every last one of them—but

really, it’s not their fault—they’re just programmed that way.” [9]

When he says business school students are programmed, what does he mean? If someone is

programmed to be an opportunistic parasite in business, can we blame them for what they do? If

so, how? If not, who should be blamed?

8. The commenter as is skeptical. He writes, “Don’t make me laugh. If they are so concerned about

the ‘greater good,’ go into teaching and nursing.” [10]

Assume the MBA Oath does stress the importance of the greater good, and you too are going into

the economic world with that as a privileged value. How could you respond to the argument that

you really should be doing nursing or something more obviously serving the general good?

9. According to the Times, B-schoolers aren’t lining up for the MBA Oath: only about 20 percent take the

pledge. How could you convince the other 80 percent to sign on?

I.M.P. (It’s My Party)

“Look at them!” he said, his eyes dancing. “That’s what it’s all about, the way the people feel. It’s

not about the sellout performances and the caliber of the bands that appear here. It’s about the

people who buy tickets, having a good time.” [11]

Source: Photo courtesy of Kevin Dooley, http://www.flickr.com/photos/pagedooley/4530723795/.

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That’s Seth Hurwitz quoted in the Washington Post, talking about his 9:30 Club, a small venue playing

over-the-hill bands on the way down, and fresh acts scratching their way up.

The story’s curious detail is that even though Hurwitz calls his company I.M.P. (It’s My Party), he doesn’t

spend much time at his club. In fact, he’s almost never there. Part of the reason is that his workday begins

at 6 a.m., so he’s actually back in bed preparing for the next day before his enterprise gets going in earnest

each night. His job is straightforward: sitting in the second floor office of his suburban DC home, he

scrutinizes the music publications and statistics, probing for bands that people want to see and that won’t

charge too much to appear. He told the Post that he won’t book an act as a favor, and he won’t flatter a

group into playing his club to keep them away from the competition by overpaying them. “I don’t

subscribe,” he says, “to doing shows that will lose money.”

Hurwitz has been connected with music in one way or another for almost as long as he can remember.

The Post relates some of his early memories:

He rigged a system to broadcast radio from his basement to his parents and brothers in the living

room. “I used to bring my singles into class and play them,” Hurwitz said. When he was 16, he

decided he wanted to be a deejay and got his chance when alternative rock station WHFS gave

him a spot. “It was from 7:45 to 8—fifteen minutes,” he said, laughing. “But that was okay

because I wanted to be on the radio, and I had my own show, as a high school student.” He said

he was fired “for being too progressive.” [12]

It’s a long way from getting fired for playing music too obscure for alternative radio to where Hurwitz is

now: putting on concerts by bands selected because they’ll make money.

QUE STIONS

1. Hurwitz is brutally honest about the fact that he’ll only contract bands capable of turning a profit.

When he was younger and a deejay, he insisted on playing the music he judged best no matter

how many people turned off the radio when his show came on (an attitude that cost him the job).

o What, if anything, is Hurwitz the older concert promoter compromising to get ahead? Is there an

ethical objection that could be raised here? If so, what? If not, why not?

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o When Hurwitz was a deejay, he played records that led people to change the station. Then the

station changed him. Is this an example of business regulating itself? Is there an ethical side to

this, or is it just the way money works? Explain.

o From the information given, would you judge that Hurwitz is successful in business? Why or why

not?

o Are all these questions part of institutional business ethics or personal business ethics? Explain.

2. Hurwitz says that he doesn’t book bands as favors. Presumably at least some of the favors he’s

talking about would be to friends.

o Do people who run their own company have an ethical responsibility to separate friends from

business?

3. One nice thing about Hurwitz working upstairs in his own house is that he can show up for work in the

morning in his pajamas. Should all places of business be like that—with people free to wear whatever they

want for work? Explain your answer from an ethical perspective.

4. Most of Hurwitz’s shows are on weeknights. Some concertgoers may have such a good time that

they can’t make it in to work the next day.

o If you go to a concert on a Wednesday and are too hung over to make it to work on Thursday,

what should you tell your boss on Friday? That you were hung over? That your car broke down?

Something else? Justify.

o Should Hurwitz accept some responsibility and blame for absent employees? Explain.

[1] Connie Guglielmo, “Apple Says Children Were Used to Build iPhone, iPod (Update1),” Bloomberg,

February 27, 2010, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aiEeeQNHkrOY.

[2] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011, http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath.

[3] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011, http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath.

[4] Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009,

accessed May 11, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html.

Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org

[5] paulnyc, May 30, 2009 (10:58 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[6] JerryNY, May 30, 2009 (10:51 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[7] Eric, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[8] Clyde Wynant, May 30, 2009 (10:55 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an

Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[9] Mikhail, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[10] as, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of

Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,

http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort

=oldest.

[11] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May

11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it-takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html.

[12] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May

11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it-takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html.

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Chapter 2

Theories of Duties and Rights: Traditional Tools for

Making Decisions in Business When the Means Justify

the Ends

Chapter Overview

Chapter 2 “Theories of Duties and Rights: Traditional Tools for Making Decisions in Business When the

Means Justify the Ends” examines some theories guiding ethical decisions in business. It considers ethics

defined by duties and rights.

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2.1 The Means Justify the Ends versus the Ends Justify the

Means

L EARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Distinguish ethical theory centered on means from theory centered on ends.

A Foundational Question

In business ethics, do the means justify the ends, or do the ends justify the means? Is it better to have a set

of rules telling you what you ought to do in any particular situation and then let the chips fall where they

may, or should you worry more about how things are going to end up and do whatever’s necessary to

reach that goal?

Until recently, Eddy Lepp ran an organic medicine business in Northern California. His herbal product

soothed nausea and remedied vomiting, especially as suffered by chemo patients. He had a problem,

though. While his business had been OK’d by California regulators, federal agencies hadn’t approved: on

the national level, selling his drug was breaking the law. On the other hand, not selling his remedy had a

significant downside: it was consigning his clients to debilitating suffering. So when federal agents came

knocking on his door, he had to make a decision.

If the means justify the ends—if you should follow the rules no matter the consequences—then when the

agents ask Lepp point blank whether he’s selling the medicine, the ethical action is to admit it. He should

tell the truth even though that will mean the end of his business. On the other hand, if the ends justify the

means—if your ethical interest focuses on the consequences of an act instead of what you actually do—

then the ethics change. If there are a law forcing people to suffer unnecessarily, it should be broken. And

when the agents ask him whether he’s selling, he’s going to have an ethical reason to lie.

Across the entire field of traditional ethics, this is a foundational distinction. Is it what you do that

matters, or the consequences? It’s hard to get oriented in ethics without making a preliminary decision

between these two. No one can make the decision for you, but before anyone can make it, an

understanding of how each works should be reached. This chapter will consider ethics as focusing on the

specific act and not the consequences. Theories of duties and rights center discussion.

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Chapter 3 “Theories of Consequence Ethics: Traditional Tools for Making Decisions in Business when the

Ends Justify the Means” is about ethics as looking at the consequences instead of the act.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 When the means justify the ends, ethical consideration focuses on what you do, not the consequences of

what you’ve done.

 Traditionally, focusing on means instead of ends leads to an ethics based on duties or rights.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Your mother is ill with diabetes, and you can’t afford her medicine. In the pharmacy one day, you notice

the previous customer forgot that same prescription on the counter when she left. Why might the premise

that the ends justify the means lead you to steal the pills?

2. Why might the premise that the means justify the ends lead you to return the pills?

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2.2 Perennial Duties

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define an ethical duty.

2. Distinguish specific duties.

3. Show how ethical duties work in business.

4. Consider advantages and drawbacks of an ethics based on duties.

Duties

“Should I steal that?”

“No, stealing’s wrong.”

Basic ethics. There are things that are right and others that are wrong, and the discussion ends. This level

of clarity and solidity is the main strength of an ethics based on duties. We all have a duty not to steal, so

we shouldn’t do it. More broadly, when we’re making moral decisions, the key to deciding well is

understanding what our duties are and obeying them. An ethics based on duties is one where certain rules

tell us what we ought to do, and it’s our responsibility to know and follow those rules.

The Madoff Family

If we’re supposed to obey our duties, then what exactly are they? That’s a question Andrew Madoff faced

in December 2008 when he learned that some—maybe most, maybe all—of the money he and his family

had been donating to the charitable Lymphoma Research Foundation and similar medical investigation

enterprises was, in fact, stolen.

It was big money—in the millions—channeled to dedicated researchers hot on the trail of a remedy for

lymphoma, a deadly cancer. Andrew, it should be noted, wasn’t only a cancer altruist; he was also a

victim, and the charitable money started flowing to the researchers soon after he was diagnosed.

It’s unclear whether Andrew knew the money was stolen, but there’s no doubt that his dad did. Dad—

Bernard “Bernie” Madoff—was the one who took it. The largest Ponzi scheme in history, they call it.

A Ponzi scheme—named after the famous perpetrator Charles Ponzi—makes suckers of investors by

briefly delivering artificially high returns on their money. The idea is simple: You take $100 from client A,

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promising to invest the money cleverly and get a massive profit. You spend $50 on yourself, and at the

end of the year, you send the other $50 back to the client along with a note saying that the original $100

investment is getting excellent results and another $50 should come in next year and every year from then

on. Happy client A recommends friends, who become clients B, C, and D. They bring in a total of $300, so

it’s easy to make good on the original promise to send a $50 return the next year to client A. And you’ve

now got $250 remaining from these three new clients, $150 of which you will soon return to them ($50

for each of the three new clients), leaving you with $100 to spend on yourself. The process repeats, and it’s

not long before people are lining up to hand over their money. Everyone makes off like bandits.

Bandit is the right term for Madoff, who ran his Ponzi empire for around fifteen years. So many people

handed over so much cash, and the paper trail of fake stock-purchase receipts and the rest grew so

complicated that it’s impossible to determine exact numbers of victims and losses. Federal authorities

have estimated the victims were around five thousand and the losses around $65 billion, which works out

to about $13 million squeezed from each client.

Madoff had, obviously, rich clients. He met them at his home in New York City; at his mansion

in hyperwealthy

Palm Beach, Florida; or on his fifty-five-foot yacht cleverly named Bull. He impressed them with a

calm demeanor and serious knowledge. While it’s true that he was mostly taking clients’ money and

sticking it in his wallet, the investments he claimed to engineer were actually quite sophisticated; they had

to do with buying stock in tandem with options to buy and sell that same stock on the futures market. He

threw in technical words like “put” and “call” and left everyone thinking he was either crazy or a genius.

Since he was apparently making money, “genius” seemed the more likely reality. People also found him

trustworthy. He sat on the boards of several Wall Street professional organizations and was known on the

charity circuit as a generous benefactor. Health research was a favorite, especially after Andrew’s cancer

was diagnosed.

Exactly how much money Madoff channeled to Andrew and other family members isn’t clear. By late

2008, however, Andrew knew that his father’s investment company had hit a rough patch. The stock

market was crashing, investors wanted their money back, and Madoff was having trouble rounding up the

cash, which explains why Andrew was surprised when his father called him in and said he’d decided to

distribute about $200 million in bonuses to family members and employees.

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It didn’t make sense. How could there be a cash-flow crisis but still enough cash to pay out giant bonuses?

The blunt question—according to the Madoff family—broke Madoff down. He spilled the truth: there was

little money left; it was all a giant lie.

The next day, Andrew reported the situation to the authorities.

Madoff sits in jail now. He’ll be there for the rest of his life. He claims his scheme was his project alone

and his children had no knowledge or participation in it, despite the fact that they were high executives in

his fraudulent company. Stubbornly, he has refused to cooperate with prosecutors interested in

determining the extent to which the children may have been involved. His estate has been seized. His

wife, though, was left with a small sum—$2.5 million—to meet her day-to-day living expenses. Bilked

investors got nearly nothing.

One of those investors, according to ABC News, was Sheryl Weinstein. She and her family are now looking

for a place to live because after investing everything with Madoff and losing it, they were unable to make

their house payments. At Madoff’s sentencing hearing, and with her husband seated beside her, she spoke

passionately about their plight and called Madoff a “beast.” The hearing concluded with the judge calling

Madoff “evil.” [1]

Weinstein was well remembered by Madoff’s longtime secretary, Eleanor Squillari. Squillari reported that

Weinstein would often call Madoff and that “he would roll his eyes and then they’d go meet at a hotel.”

Their affair lasted twenty years, right up until the finance empire collapsed.

What Do I Owe Myself? Historically Accumulated Duties to the Self

Over centuries of thought and investigation by philosophers, clergy, politicians, entrepreneurs, parents,

students—by just about everyone who cares about how we live together in a shared world—a limited

number of duties have recurred persistently. Called perennial duties, these are basic obligations we have

as human beings; they’re the fundamental rules telling us how we should act. If we embrace them, we can

be confident that in difficult situations we’ll make morally respectable decisions.

Broadly, this group of perennial duties falls into two sorts:

1. Duties to ourselves

2. Duties to others

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Duties to the self-begin with our responsibility to develop our abilities and talents. The abilities we find

within us, the idea is, aren’t just gifts; it’s not only a strike of luck that some of us are born with a knack

for math, or an ear for music, or the ability to shepherd conflicts between people into agreements. All

these skills are also responsibilities. When we receive them, they come with the duty to develop them, to

not let them go to waste in front of the TV or on a pointless job.

Most of us have a feeling for this. It’s one thing if a vaguely clumsy girl in a ballet class decides to not sign

up the next semester and instead use the time trying to boost her GPA, but if someone who’s really good—

who’s strong, and elegant, and a natural—decides to just walk away, of course the coach and friends are

going to encourage her to think about it again. She has something that so few have, it’s a shame to waste

it; it’s a kind of betrayal of her own uniqueness. This is the spot where the ethics come in: the idea is that

she really should continue her development; it’s a responsibility she has to herself because she really can

develop.

What about Andrew Madoff, the cancer sufferer? He not only donated money to cancer research charities

but also dedicated his time, serving as chairman of the Lymphoma Research Foundation (until his dad

was arrested). This dedication does seem like a duty because of his unique situation: as a sufferer, he

perfectly understood the misery caused by the disease, and as a wealthy person, he could muster a serious

force against the suffering. When he did, he fulfilled the duty to exploit his particular abilities.

The other significant duty to oneself is nearly a corollary of the first: the duty to do ourselves no harm. At

root, this means we have a responsibility to maintain ourselves healthily in the world. It doesn’t do any

good to dedicate hours training the body to dance beautifully if the rest of the hours are dedicated to

alcoholism and Xanax. Similarly, Andrew should not only fight cancer publicly by advocating for medical

research but also fight privately by adhering to his treatment regime.

At the extreme, this duty also prohibits suicide, a possibility that no doubt crosses Bernie Madoff’s mind

from time to time as he contemplates spending the rest of his life in a jail cell.

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What Do I Owe Others? Historically Accumulated Duties to Others

The duties we have to ourselves be the most immediate, but the most commonly referenced duties are

those we have to others.

Avoid wronging others are the guiding duty to those around us. It’s difficult, however, to know exactly

what it means to wrong another in every particular case. It does seem clear that Madoff wronged his

clients when he pocketed their money. The case of his wife is blurrier, though. She was allowed to keep

more than $2 million after her husband’s sentencing. She claims she has a right to it because she never

knew what her husband was doing, and anyway, at least that much money came to her from other

perfectly legal investment initiatives her husband undertook. So she can make a case that the money is

hers to keep and she’s not wronging anyone by holding onto it. Still, it’s hard not to wonder about

investors here, especially ones like Sheryl Weinstein, who lost everything, including their homes.

Honesty is the duty to tell the truth and not leave anything important out. On this front, obviously, Madoff

wronged his investors by misleading them about what was happening with their money.

Respect others are the duty to treat others as equals in human terms. This doesn’t mean treating everyone

the same way. When a four-year-old asks where babies come from, the stork is a fine answer. When adult

investors asked Madoff where the profits came from, what they got was more or less a fairy tale. Now, the

first case is an example of respect: it demonstrates an understanding of another’s capacity to comprehend

the world and an attempt to provide an explanation matching that ability. The second is a lie; but more

than that, it’s a sting of disrespect. When Madoff invented stories about where the money came from, he

disdained his investors as beneath him, treating them as unworthy of the truth.

Beneficence is the duty to promote the welfare of others; it’s the Good Samaritan side of ethical duties.

With respect to his own family members, Madoff certainly fulfilled this obligation: every one of them

received constant and lavish amounts of cash. There’s also beneficence in Andrew’s work for charitable

causes, even if there’s a self-serving element, too. By contrast, Madoff displayed little beneficence for his

clients.

Gratitude is the duty to thank and remember those who help us. One of the curious parts of Madoff’s last

chapter is that in the end, at the sentencing hearing, a parade of witnesses stood up to berate him. But

even though Madoff had donated millions of dollars to charities over the years, not a single person or

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representative of a charitable organization stood up to say something on his behalf. That’s ingratitude, no

doubt.

But there’s more here than ingratitude; there’s also an important point about all ethics guided by basic

duties: the duties don’t exist alone. They’re all part of a single fabric, and sometimes they pull against each

other. In this case, the duty Madoff’s beneficiaries probably felt to a man who’d given them so much was

overwhelmed by the demand of another duty: the duty to respect others, specifically those who lost

everything to Madoff. It’s difficult to imagine a way to treat people more disdainfully than to thank the

criminal who stole their money for being so generous. Those who received charitable contributions from

Madoff were tugged in one direction by gratitude to him and in another by respect for his many victims.

All the receivers opted, finally, to respect the victims.

Fidelity is the duty to keep our promises and hold up our end of agreements. The Madoff case is littered

with abuses on this front. On the professional side, there’s the financier who didn’t invest his clients’

money as he’d promised; on the personal side, there’s Madoff and Weinstein staining their wedding vows.

From one end to the other in terms of fidelity, this is an ugly case.

Reparation is the duty to compensate others when we harm them. Madoff’s wife, Ruth, obviously didn’t

feel much of this. She walked away with $2.5 million.

The judge overseeing the case, on the other hand, filled in some of what Ruth lacked. To pay back bilked

investors, the court seized her jewelry, her art, and her mink and sable coats. Those things, along with the

couple’s three multimillion-dollar homes, the limousines, and the yacht, were all sold at public auction.

The Concept of Fairness

The final duty to be considered—fairness—requires more development than those already listed because

of its complexity.

According to Aristotle, fairness is treating equals equally and un-equals unequally. The treat equals

equally part means, for a professional investor like Madoff, that all his clients get the same deal: those

who invest equal amounts of money at about the same time should get an equal return. So even though

Madoff was sleeping with one of his investors, this shouldn’t allow him to treat her account distinctly from

the ones belonging to the rest. Impartiality must govern the operation.

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The other side of fairness is the requirement to treat un-equals unequally. Where there’s a meaningful

difference between investors—which means a difference pertaining to the investment and not something

extraneous like a romantic involvement—there should correspond a proportional difference in what

investors receive. Under this clause, Madoff could find justification for allowing two distinct rates of

return for his clients. Those that put up money at the beginning when everything seemed riskier could

justifiably receive a higher payout than the one yielded to more recent participants. Similarly, in any

company, if layoffs are necessary, it might make sense to say that those who’ve been working in the

organization longest should be the last ones to lose their jobs. In either case, the important point is

that fairness doesn’t mean everyone gets the same treatment; it means that rules for treating people

must be applied equally. If a corporate executive decides on layoffs according to a last-in-first-out

process, that’s fine, but it would be unfair to make exceptions.

One of the unique aspects of the idea of fairness as a duty is its hybrid status between duties to the self

and duties to others. While it would seem strange to say that we have a duty of gratitude or fidelity to

ourselves, it clearly makes sense to assert that we should be fair to ourselves. Impartiality—the rule of no

exceptions—means no exceptions. So a stock investor who puts his own money into a general fund he runs

should receive the same return as everyone else. A poor investment that loses 10 percent should cost him

no more than 10 percent (he has to be fair to himself), and one that gains 10 percent shouldn’t net him

any more than what the others receive (he has to be fair to others).

Modern Fairness: Rawls

The recent American philosopher John Rawls proposes a veil of ignorance as a way of testing for fairness,

especially with respect to the distribution of wealth in general terms. For example, in society as Madoff

knew it, vast inequalities of wealth weren’t only allowed, they were honored: being richer than anyone else

was something to be proud of, and Madoff lived that reality full tilt. Now, if you asked Madoff whether

we should allow some members of society to be much wealthier than others, he might say that’s fair:

everyone is allowed to get rich in America, and that’s just what he did. However, the guy coming into

Madoff’s office at 3 a.m. to mop up and empty the trash might see things differently. He may claim to

work just as hard as Madoff, but without getting fancy cars or Palm Springs mansions. People making the

big bucks, the suggestion could follow, should get hit with bigger taxes and the money used to provide

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educational programs allowing guys from the cleaning crew to get a better chance at climbing the income

ladder. Now, given these two perspectives, is there a way to decide what’s really fair when it comes to

wealth and taxes?

Rawls proposes that we try to re-imagine society without knowing what our place in it would be. In the

case of Madoff, he may like things as they are, but would he stick with the idea that everything’s fair if he

were told that a rearrangement was coming and he was going to get stuck back into the business world at

random? He might hesitate there, seeing that he could get dealt a bad hand and, yes, end up being the guy

who cleans offices. And that guy who cleans offices might figure that if he got a break, then he’d be the rich

one, and so he’s no longer so sure about raising taxes. The veil of ignorance is the idea that when you set

up the rules, you don’t get to know beforehand where you’ll fall inside them, which is going to force you to

construct things in a way that is really balanced and fair.

As a note here, nearly all children know the veil of ignorance perfectly. When two friends together buy a

candy bar to split, they’ll frequently have one person break it, and the other choose a half. If you’re the

breaker, you’re under the veil of ignorance since you don’t know which half you’re going to get. The result

is you break it fairly, as close to the middle as you can.

Balancing the Duties

Duties include those to

 develop abilities and talents,

 do ourselves no harm,

 avoid wronging others,

 honesty,

 respect others,

 beneficence,

 gratitude,

 fidelity,

 reparation,

 fairness,

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Taken on their own, each of these plugs into normal experience without significant problems. Real

troubles come, though, when more than one duty seems applicable and they’re pulling in different

directions.

Take Andrew Madoff, for example. Lying in bed at night and taking his ethical duties seriously, what

should he do in the wake of the revelation that his family business was in essence a giant theft? On one

side, there’s an argument that he should just keep on keeping on by maintaining his life as a New York

financier. The route to justifying that decision starts with a duty to him:

 Develop abilities and talents. As an expert in finance, someone with both knowledge of and

experience in the field, Andrew should continue cultivating and perfecting his talents, at least those he

had acquired on the legitimate side of the family’s dealings.

Beyond the duty to himself, Andrew can further buttress his decision to keep his current life going by

referencing a duty to others:

 Beneficence. This may demand that Andrew continue along the lines he’d already established because

they enabled his involvement with cancer research. He’s got money to donate to the cause and his very

personal experience with the disease allows rare insight into what can be done to help sufferers. To the

extent that’s true, beneficence supports Andrew’s decision to go on living as he had been.

On the other side, what’s the duty-based argument in favor of Andrew taking a different path by breaking

away from his old lifestyle and dedicating all his energy and time to doing what he can for the jilted

investors the family business left behind?

 Respect. The duty to treat others as equals demands that Andrew take seriously the abilities and lives of

all those who lost everything. Why should they be reduced to powerlessness and poverty while he

continues maximizing his potential as a stock buyer and nonprofit leader? Respecting others and their

losses may mean leaving his profession and helping them get back on their feet.



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 Reparation. This duty advances as the proposal for Andrew to liquidate his assets and divide the money

as fairly as possible among the ruined investors. It may be that Andrew didn’t orchestrate the family Ponzi

scheme, but wittingly or not, he participated and that opens the way to the duty to repayment.

So which path should Andrew follow? There’s no certain answer. What duties do allow Andrew—or

anyone considering his situation—to achieve is a solid footing for making a reasonable and defendable

decision. From there, the ethical task is to weigh the various duties and choose which ones pull harder and

make the stronger demand.

Where Do Duties Come From?

The question about the origin of duties belongs to meta-ethics, to purified discussions about the theory of

ethics as opposed to its application, so it falls outside this book’s focus. Still, two commonly cited sources

of duties can be quickly noted.

One standard explanation is that duties are written into the nature of the universe; they’re part of the way

things are. In a sense, they’re a moral complement to the laws of physics. We know that scientists form

mathematical formulas to explain how far arrows will travel when shot at a certain speed; these formulas

describe the way the natural world is. So too in the realm of ethics: duties are the rules describing how the

world is in moral terms. On this account, ethics isn’t so different from science; it’s just that scientists

explore physical reality and ethicists explore moral reality. In both cases, however, the reality is already

there; we’re just trying to understand it.

Another possible source for the duties is humanity in the sense that part of what it means to be human is

to have this particular sense of right and wrong. Under this logic, a computer-guided robot may beat

humans in chess, but no machine will ever understand what a child does when mom asks, “Did you break

the vase? Tell me the truth.” Maybe this moral spark children are taken to feel is written into their genetic

code, or maybe it’s something ineffable, like a soul. Whichever, the reason it comes naturally is because

it’s part of our nature.

What Are the Advantages and Drawbacks of an Ethics Based on Duties?

One of the principal advantages of working with an ethics of duties is simplicity: duties are fairly easy to

understand and work with. We all use them every day. For many of us these duties are the first thing

coming to mind when we hear the word ethics. Straightforward rules about honesty, gratitude, and

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keeping up our ends of agreements—these are the components of a common education in ethics, and most

of us are well experienced in their use.

The problem, though, comes when the duties pull against each other: when one says yes and the other

says no. Unfortunately, there’s no hard-and-fast rule for deciding which duties should take precedence

over the others.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Duties include responsibilities to one self and to others.

 Duties do not exist in isolation but in a network, and they sometimes pull against each other.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Bernie Madoff was a very good—though obviously not a perfect—fraudster. He got away with a lot for a

long time. How could the duty to develop one’s own abilities be mustered to support his decision to

become a criminal?

2. In the Madoff case, what duties could be mustered to refute the conclusion that he did the right thing by

engaging in fraud?

3. Madoff gave up most of his money and possessions and went to jail for his crimes. Is there anything else

he should have done to satisfy the ethical duty of reparation?

4. In your own words, what does it mean to treat equals equally and un-equals unequally?

[1] Brian Ross, Anna Schecter, and Kate McCarthy, “Bernie Madoff’s Other Secret: His Hadassah CFO

Mistress,” ABCNews.com, April 16, 2011, accessed May 11,

2011,http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/Madoff/story?id=8319695&page=1.

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2.3 Immanuel Kant: The Duties of the Categorical Imperative

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative.

2. Show how the categorical imperative functions in business.

3. Consider advantages and drawbacks of an ethics based on the categorical imperative.

Kant

German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) accepted the basic proposition that a theory of duties—

a set of rules telling us what we’re obligated to do in any particular situation—was the right approach to

ethical problems. What he set out to add, though, was a stricter mechanism for the use of duties in our

everyday experience. He wanted a way to get all these duties we’ve been talking about to work together, to

produce a unified recommendation, instead of leaving us confused between loyalty to one principle and

another. At least on some basic issues, Kant set out to produce ethical certainty.

Lying is about as primary as issues get in ethics, and the Madoff case is shot through with it:

 Bernie Madoff always claimed that the Ponzi scheme wasn’t the original idea. He sought money from

investors planning to score big with complicated financial maneuvers. He took a few losses early on,

though, and faced the possibility of everyone just taking their cash and going home. That’s when he

started channeling money from new investors to older ones, claiming the funds were the fruit of his

excellent stock dealing. He always intended, Madoff says, to get the money back, score some huge

successes, and they’d let him get on the straight and narrow again. It never happened. But that doesn’t

change the fact that Madoff thought it would. He was lying temporarily, and for the good of everyone in

the long run.

 Sheryl Weinstein had a twenty-year affair with Madoff. She also invested her family’s life savings with

him. When the Ponzi scheme came undone, she lost everything. To get some money back, she considered

writing a tell-all, and that led to a heart-wrenching decision between money and her personal life. Her

twenty-year dalliance was not widely known, and things could have remained that way: her husband and

son could’ve gone on without the whole world knowing that the husband was a cuckold and the son the

product of a poisoned family. But they needed money because they’d lost everything, including their

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home, in Madoff’s scam. So does she keep up the false story or does she turn the truth into a profit

opportunity?

What does Kant say about all this? The answer is his categorical imperative. An imperative is something

you need to do. A hypothetical imperative is something you need to do, but only in certain circumstances;

for example, I have to eat, but only in those circumstances where I’m hungry. A categorical imperative, by

contrast, is something you need to do all the time: there are ethical rules that don’t depend on the

circumstances, and it’s the job of the categorical imperative to tell us what they are. Here, we will consider

two distinct expressions of Kant’s categorical imperative, two ways that guidance is provided.

First Version of the Categorical Imperative

The first version or expression of the categorical imperative: Act in a way that the rule for your action

could be universalized. When you’re thinking about doing something, this means you should imagine

that everyone did it all the time. Now, can this make sense? Can it happen? Is there a world you can

imagine where everyone does this thing that you’re considering at every opportunity? Take the case of

Madoff asking himself, “Should I lie to keep investor money flowing in?” What we need to do is imagine

this act as universalized: everyone lies all the time. Just imagine that. You ask someone whether it’s sunny

outside. It is sunny, but they say, “No, it’s raining.” The next day you ask someone else. Again, it’s sunny,

but they say, “No, it’s snowing.” This goes on day after day. Pretty soon, wouldn’t you just give up listening

to what people say? Here’s the larger point: if everyone lies all the time, pretty soon people are going to

stop listening to anyone. And if no one’s listening, is it possible to lie to them?

What Kant’s categorical imperative shows is that lying cannot be universalized. The act of lying can’t

survive in a world where everyone’s just making stuff up all the time. Since no one will be taking anyone

else seriously, you may try to sell a false story but no one will be buying.

Something similar happens in comic books. No one accuses authors and illustrators of lying when Batman

kicks some bad guys into the next universe and then strips off his mask and his hair is perfect. That’s not a

lie; it’s fiction. And fictional stories can’t lie because no one expects they’ll tell the truth. No one asks

whether it’s real or fake, only whether it’s entertaining. The same would go in the real world if everyone

lied all the time. Reality would be like a comic: it might be fun, or maybe not, but accusing someone of

lying would definitely be absurd.

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Bringing this back to Madoff, as Kant sees it he has to make a basic decision: should I lie to investors to

keep my operation afloat? The answer is no. According to the categorical imperative, it must be no, not

because lying is directly immoral, but because lying cannot be universalized and therefore it’s immoral.

The same goes for Sheryl Weinstein as she wonders whether she should keep the lid on her familywrecking

affair. The answer is no because the answer is always no when the question is whether I should

lie. You might want to respond by insisting, “She’s already done the deed and Bernie’s in jail so it’s not

going to happen again. The best thing at this point would be for her to just keep her mouth shut and hold

her family together as

as best she can.” That’s a fair argument. But for Kant it’s also a loser because the

categorical imperative gives the last word. There’s no appeal. There’s no lying, no matter what.

One more point about the universalization of acts: even if you insist that a world could exist where

everyone lied all the time, would you really want to live there? Most of us don’t mind lying so much as

long as we’re the ones getting away with it. But if everyone’s doing it, that’s different. Most of us might

agree that if we had a choice between living in a place where everyone told the truth and one where

everyone lied, we’d go for the honest reality. It just makes sense: lying will help you only if you’re the sole

liar, but if everyone’s busy taking advantage of everyone else, then there’s nothing in it for you, and you

might just as well join everyone in telling the truth.

Conclusion. The first expression of the categorical imperative—act in such a way that the rule for your

action could be universalized—is a consistency principle. Like the golden rule (treat others as you’d like to

be treated), it forces you to ask how things would work if everyone else did what you’re considering doing.

Objections to the First Version of the Categorical Imperative

One of the objections to this ethical guidance is that a reality without lying can be awfully uncomfortable.

If your boss shows up for work on a Friday wearing one of those designer dresses that looks great on a

supermodel and ridiculous everywhere else, and she asks what you think, what are you going to say?

“Hideous”? Telling the truth no matter what, whether we’re at work or anywhere else, is one of those

things that sounds good in the abstract but is almost impossible to actually live by.

Then the problem gets worse. A deranged addict storms into your office announcing that he’s just received

a message from the heavens. While chewing manically on dirty fingernails, he relates that he’s supposed

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to attack someone named Jones—anyone named Jones. “What,” he suddenly demands, “is your name?”

Unfortunately, you happen to be named Sam Jones. Now what?

Second Version of the Categorical Imperative

The second expression of the categorical imperative is: Treat people as an end, and never as a means to an

end. To treat people as ends, not means is to never use anyone to get something else. People can’t be tools

or instruments; they can’t be things you employ to get to what you really want. A simple example of using

another as a means would be striking up a friendship with Chris because you really want to meet his wife

who happens to be a manager at the advertising company you desperately want to work for.

It’d be hard to imagine a clearer case of this principle being broken than that of Madoff’s Ponzi scheme.

He used the money from each new investor to pay off the last one. That means every investor was nothing

but a means to an end: everyone was nothing more than a way to keep the old investors happy and attract

new ones.

Madoff’s case of direct theft is clear cut, but others aren’t quite so easy. If Weinstein goes ahead and writes

her tell-all about life in bed with Madoff, is she using him as a means to her end (which is making

money)? Is she using book buyers? What about her husband and the suffering he would endure? It can be

difficult to be sure in every case exactly what it means to “use” another person.

Another example comes from Madoff’s son, Andrew, who donated time and money to the cause of treating

cancer. On one hand, this seems like a generous and beneficial treatment of others. It looks like he’s

valuing them as worthwhile and good people who deserve to be saved from a disease. On the other hand,

though, when you keep in mind that Andrew too had cancer, you wonder whether he’s just using other

peoples’ suffering to promote research so that he can be saved.

Summarizing, where the first of the categorical imperative’s expressions was a consistency principle (treat

others the way you want to be treated), this is a dignity principle: treat others with respect and as holding

value in themselves. You will act ethically, according to Kant, as long as you never accept the temptation

to treat others as a way to get something else.

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Objections to the Second Version of the Categorical Imperative

The principal objection to this aspect of Kant’s theory is that, like the previous, it sounds good in the

abstract, but when you think about how it would actually work, things become difficult.

Almost all businesses require treating people as means and not as ends. In the grocery store, the cashier

isn’t waiting there to receive your respectful attention. She’s there to run your items through the scanner

and that’s it. The same goes for the guy in the produce section setting up the banana display. Really,

just paying someone to do a job—no matter what the job might be—is treating them as a means to an end,

as little more than a way to get the work done.

If that’s right, then you’re not going too far by wondering whether the entire modern world of jobs and

money would unravel if we all suddenly became Kantians. Paying a janitor to clean up after hours, a

paralegal to proofread a lawyer’s briefs, a day-care worker to keep peace among children at recess, all

these treatments of others seem to fail Kant’s test.

Defenders of Kant understand all this perfectly and can respond. One argument is that providing someone

with a job is not treating them as a means to your ends; instead, by allowing them the opportunity to earn

a living, you’re actually supporting their projects and happiness. Seen this way, hiring people is not

denigrating them, it’s enabling. And far from being immoral in the Kantian sense, it’s ethically

recommendable.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 The first expression of Kant’s categorical imperative requires that ethical decisions be universalizable.

 The second expression of Kant’s categorical imperative requires that ethical decisions treat others as ends

and not means.

 Kant’s conception of ethical duties can provide clear guidance but at the cost of inflexibility: it can be hard

to make the categorical imperative work in everyday life.

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REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Imagine Madoff lied to attain his clients’ money as he did, but instead of living the high life, he donated

everything to charity. For Kant, does this remove the ethical stain from his name? Why not?

2. Think back to your first job, whatever it was. Did you feel like you were used by the organization, or did

you feel like they were doing you a favor, giving you the job? How does the experience relate to the

imperative to treat others as an end and not a means?

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2.4 Rights

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define an ethical right.

2. Distinguish specific rights.

3. Show how ethical rights work in business.

4. Consider advantages and drawbacks of an ethics based on rights.

Rights

An ethics based on rights is similar to an ethics based on duties. In both cases specific principles provide

ethical guidance for your acts, and those principles are to be obeyed regardless of the consequences

further down the line. Unlike duties, however, rights-based ethics concentrate their force in delineating

your possibilities. The question isn’t so much What are you morally required to do; it’s more about

defining exactly where and when you’re free to do whatever you want and then deciding where you need

to stop and make room for other people to be free too. Stated slightly differently, duties tend to be ethics

as what you can’t do, and rights tend to be about what you can do.

My Property, My Religion, My Nonprofit Organization, My Health Care, My

Grass

Charles Edward “Eddy” Lepp is in jail now, in a prison not too far away from the site of the business that

got him in trouble: Eddy’s Medicinal Gardens and Ministry. What was Eddy Lepp the gardener and

minister up to on his twenty-acre property near a lake in California, about a hundred miles north from

San Francisco? Here are the highlights:

 Ministry. Lepp claims—and there doesn’t seem to be anyone who disputes him—that he’s an authentic

Rastafarian reverend.

 Rastafarianism. Developed over the last century in Africa and the Caribbean, the religion works within

the basic structure of Christianity but contains important innovations. Haile Selassie I was the emperor of

Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974 and, according to the faith, was also the reincarnation of Jesus Christ.

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Further, marijuana—called ganja by believers—accompanies religious meetings and ceremonies; it brings

adherents closer to God.

 Lepp’s Medicinal Gardens. In fact, this wasn’t a garden so much as a collective farm. Lepp oversaw

the work of volunteers—their numbers totaling about two hundred—and did some harvesting and

planting himself. Many of the farm’s marijuana leaves were smoked by the 2,500 members of his zonkedout

church as part of Rastafarian celebrations and meetings, and the rest was, according to Lepp,

distributed to individuals with serious health problems.

 Marijuana and health care. Studies indicate that in some patients marijuana may alleviate nausea

and vomiting, especially as connected with chemotherapy. There’s also a list of further symptoms and

maladies the drug could relieve, according to some evidence. It should be noted here that many suspect

the persons conducting these studies (not to mention the patients receiving the testing) are favorably

predisposed toward marijuana in the first place, and the prejudice may contaminate conclusions. What’s

certain is that from a strictly medical perspective, the question about marijuana’s utility remains

controversial. Among those who are convinced, however, smoking is a good remedy. That’s why in

California patients have been granted a legal right to possess and use marijuana medicinally, as long as

they’ve got a doctor’s approval. Unfortunately for Lepp, California law can’t bar federal prosecutions, and

it was the US Drug Enforcement Administration from all the way out in Washington, DC, that eventually

came after him. [1]

About retirement age now, Eddy Lepp is one of those guys who never really left Woodstock. Before being

incarcerated, he slumped around in tie-dyes and jeans. He liked wearing a hat emblazoned with the

marijuana leaf. Out on his semirural farm, he passed the days smoking joints and listening to Bob Marley

music.

Everyone seems to like the guy. A longtime activist for the legalization of marijuana, he’s even something

of a folk hero in Northern California. At his sentencing, the crowd (chanting “free Eddy!”) spilled out into

the courthouse hallways. The judge didn’t seem to mind the spectacle, and she went out of her way to say

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she didn’t want to hit him with ten years of jail time, but federal guidelines gave her no choice. Now

there’s talk of a pardon.

Like Bernie Madoff, Lepp was touched by cancer. Madoff’s son Andrew was stricken and so was Lepp’s

wife. She died. Also, like Madoff, Lepp was a businessman. Madoff made millions and lived in luxury

while robbing investors; Lepp made enough to scrape by from his ministry and farming enterprises.

What’s a Right?

One definition of a right in ethics is a justified claim against others. I have the right to launch a gardening

business or a church enterprise or both on my property, and you’re not allowed to simply storm in and

ruin things. You do have the right, however, to produce your own garden company and church on your

property. On my side, I have the right to free speech, to say whatever I want no matter how outrageous

and you can’t stop me. You can, however, say whatever you want, too; you can respond to my words with

whatever comes into your head or just ignore me completely. A right, in sum, is something you may do if

you wish, and others are morally obligated to permit your action.

Duties tend to be protective in nature; they’re about assuring that people aren’t mistreated. Rights are the

flip side; they’re liberating in nature, they’re about assuring that you’re as free as possible.

Because rights theory maximizes choices in the name of ethics, it’s not surprising that Lepp built his court

defense on that ground. Lepp fought the law by maintaining that his medical gardens business and church

operations involved his land and his religion. It wasn’t that he had a right to grow pot or pray to a specific

God; that had nothing to do with it. The point is he had a right to do whatever he wanted on that land,

and believe in whatever he wanted in his mind. That’s what rights are about. As opposed to duties that fix

on specific acts, rights ethics declares that there are places (like my land) where the acts don’t matter. As

long as no one else’s rights are being infringed on, I’m free.

Finally, duties tend to be community oriented: they’re about how we get along with others. Rights tend to

center on the individual and what he or she can do regardless of whether anyone else is around or not.

That explains why a duty-based ethics coheres more easily with a scene like the one Madoff provoked, a

situation that involves winners and losers, criminals and victims. On the other side, an ethics based on

rights is more convenient for Lepp and his gardening and religious enterprises. Though he ended up in

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jail, there were no obvious victims of his crimes; at least no one complained that they’d been mistreated or

victimized as individuals.

What Are the Characteristics of Rights?

English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) maintained that rights are

 Universal. The fundamental rights don’t transform as you move from place to place or change with the

years.

 Equal. They’re the same for all, men and women, young and old.

 Inalienable. They can’t be taken, they can’t be sold, and they can’t be given away. We can’t not have

them. This leads to a curious paradox at the heart of rights theory. Freedom is a bedrock right, but

we’re not free to sell ourselves into slavery. We can’t because freedom is the way we are; since freedom is

part of my essence, it can’t go away without me disappearing too.

What Rights Do I Have?

The right to life is just what it sounds like: Lepp, you, and I should be able to go through our days without

worrying about someone terminating our existence. This right is so deeply embedded in our culture that it

almost seems unnecessary to state, but we don’t need to stretch too far away from our time and place to

find scenes of the right’s trampling. Between the world wars, Ukraine struggled for independence from

Joseph Stalin’s neighboring Russia. Stalin sealed the borders and sent troops to destroy all food in the

country. Millions died from starvation. Less dramatically but more contemporaneously, the right to life

has been cited as an argument against capital punishment.

The right to freedom guarantees individuals that they may do as they please, assuming their actions don’t

encroach on the freedom of others. In a business environment, this assures entrepreneurs like Lepp and

Madoff that they may mount whatever business operation they choose. Lepp’s garden and ministry were

surely unorthodox, but that can’t be a reason for its prohibition.

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Similarly, within a company, the right to freedom protects individuals against abuse. No boss can demand

more from an employee than what that employee has freely agreed—frequently through a signed

contract—to provide.

On the other side, however, there are questions about how deeply this basic right extends through day-today

working life. For example, the freewheeling Lepp probably wasn’t too concerned about the clothes his

volunteer workers chose to wear out in the garden, but what about clothes in Madoff’s investment house?

He was serving wealthy, urban clients in suits and ties. What would their reaction be to a junior

investment advisor just out of college who shows up for a meeting in a tie-dye and jeans? Some clients, it’s

safe to say, would head for the exit. Now, what recourse does boss Madoff have when the casual employee

says, “Look, it’s a free country; I can wear whatever I want”? Within a rights theory of ethics, it must be

conceded that the employee is correct. It’s also true, however, that Madoff has rights too—specifically, the

freedom to fire the guy. What can be taken from this is that, as a general rule, the enabling side of a right

ethics is that you can do whatever you want, but the limiting and controlling side is that the same goes for

everyone else.

From the right to freedom, other rights seem to derive naturally. The right to free speech is tremendously

important in the commercial world. Lepp’s messages to his Rasta flock may have provoked skepticism in

some listeners, but no one doubts that he had a right to voice his ideas. The same goes for Madoff’s

exuberant claims concerning his investing strategy. Crucially, the same also goes for those on the other

side of Madoff’s claims; the same freedom Madoff enjoyed also allowed whistle-blowers to answer back

that it’s impossible to legitimately realize such constant and high profits. In fact, in the case of Madoff’s

investment company, whistle-blowers did say that, repeatedly. No one listened, though. The right of free

speech doesn’t guarantee a hearing.

The right to religious expression also follows from basic freedom. It guaranteed Lepp the space he needed

to pioneer his particular brand of gardening Rastafarianism in Northern California. His is, obviously, a

weird case, but the right works in more traditional workplaces, too. USA Today [2] reported a case where

Muslim workers were fired from their jobs in several meatpacking plants in the Midwest because they left

the production line in the middle of the day without authorization to go outside and pray. The workers’

response? They filed a lawsuit claiming their right to religious expression had been violated.

No doubt it had been.

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But the company’s response is also weighty. According to the article, “The problem with the Muslim

prayer request is that it’s not one day or annual, it’s every day and multiple times. Further, those times

shift over the course of the year based on the sun’s position.”

The result, according to the company, is that scheduling becomes very difficult, and those who aren’t

Muslim find it nearly impossible to keep working when they’re getting abandoned so frequently during

the day. Here we’re confronted with a very basic conflict of rights. While no one doubts that freedom

exists to practice a religion, isn’t it also true that the company—or the company owners if we want to cast

this in personal terms—have a right to set up a business in whatever manner they choose, with breaks

scheduled for certain times and worker responsibilities strictly defined? In the end, the question about

Muslim workers leaving the work floor to pray isn’t about one kind of religion or another; it’s not

Christians against Muslims or something similar. The question is about which right takes precedence: the

owners’ right to set up and run a company as they wish or the employees’ right to express their beliefs how

and when they choose.

From an ethical perspective—which doesn’t necessarily correlate with a legal one—the resolution to this

dilemma and any clash about conflicting rights runs through the question of whether there’s a way to

protect the basic rights of both groups. It runs that way because rights are fundamentally about that,

about maximizing freedom. In this case, it seems that firing the workers does achieve that goal. The

owners’ initiative inside their company is protected, and the workers are now able to pray when they

desire.

To be sure, other ethical approaches will yield different outcomes, but in the midst of rights theory where

individual liberty is the guiding rule and the maximization of freedom is the overriding goal, it’s difficult

for other concerns to get traction. So it may be that the community as a whole is better served by looking

for a solution that allows Muslims to maintain their prayer schedule while also allowing the plant to

continue functioning in a normal way. Even if that’s true, however, it’s not going to affect a rights-theory

resolution very much because this kind of ethics privileges what you and I can do over what we can do

together. It’s an ethics of individualism.

The right to pursue happiness sits beside the right to life and the right to freedom at the foundation of

rights ethics. The pursuit gives final direction and meaning to the broad theory. Here’s how: it doesn’t do

much good to be alive if you’re not free, so freedom orients the right to life. It also doesn’t do much good

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to be free if you can’t pursue happiness, so the right to pursue happiness orients freedom. That’s the

organizing reasoning of ethical rights; it’s how the theory holds together. This reasoning leaves behind,

however, the difficult question as to exactly where the pursuit of happiness leads.

In an economic context, one way of concretizing the pursuit of happiness is quite important: it’s

our right to possessions and the fruits of our work. What’s ours, along with what we make or earn, we

have a right to keep and use as we wish. Among rights theorists, this particular right attracts a staunch

group of advocates. Called libertarians, they understand liberty as especially reflected in the right to

dominion over what’s ours.

Libertarianism is arguably the most muscular area of rights theory, and it’s the one where most conflicts—

and most stands in the name of personal rights and the pursuit of happiness—take place. This is definitely

where Lepp made his stand. A frequently viewed YouTube video reveals exactly what standing up for

libertarian rights looks like. In the clip, police have been called to Lepp’s Medicinal Gardens. The squad

car pulls up the long dirt road, and Lepp goes out to stop it. This is their conversation:

Lepp:

I am demanding that if you do not have a warrant that you leave. You are illegally on my

property and I am demanding that you leave!

Police

officer: (Into his radio) Can I get some help up here?

Lepp: This is private property. This is a church function. Again, I am asking, if you do not—

Police

officer: You can ask all you want, Mr. Lepp, but I’m not leaving.

Lepp:

Please leave my property! Under what authority are you standing here? Sir, I am demanding

that you tell me under what authority are you violating my rights!

Police

officer:

Under no authority, Mr. Lepp. As soon as my sergeant gets here, he’ll advise you of whatever he

wants to advise you of.

Lepp: Fine, then I suggests you go down and wait for him at the bottom of my property!

The officer stands there silently.

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This is the kind of scene that makes libertarians’ blood boil. Lepp, decked out in a t-shirt emblazoned with

a marijuana leaf, actually stays fairly mellow, but he makes his point. He makes two points actually, and

they need to be distinguished. The first is a legal point; it’s the question about whether the officer has a

warrant. The officer doesn’t, but the second point—“under what authority are you violating my rights”—

goes beyond the legal and into the ethical. Lepp believes the land is his and he’s not infringing on anyone

else’s freedoms, and therefore, he can do what he wants and the police should leave him alone.

The officer isn’t quite sure how to reply to this, which is understandable. It is because this case displays a

clear separation between the law on one side and an ethical reality on the other. Moreover, the two appear

not only separate but also incompatible; it’s difficult to see any way to bring them together. With respect

to the law, the case is clear: Lepp was growing massive amounts of marijuana on his farm and growing it

for distribution. Federal law explicitly prohibits both the growing and the distributing. It’s unambiguous.

It’s also clear that Lepp was doing it since you could see the crop from the public highway passing by his

fields. Everyone saw that marijuana was growing, that people were harvesting it, and that they were

planting more. As far as the law goes, Lepp really had no leg to stand on. Once the DEA found out about

him, they didn’t have any choice but to bring him in. But ethically—and in terms of rights theory—there

seems to be equal clarity going in the other direction. There were few complaints about Lepp’s activities.

No one was hurt, and it was his land. It’s hard to see within a libertarian perspective any way to justify the

police harassment, the legal proceedings, or the jail term Lepp ended up getting. This doesn’t mean Lepp

was treated unjustly; it only means that whatever justice was served on him, it wasn’t libertarian.

Libertarianism in the Economic World

Lepp wasn’t a big-time businessman. His medicinal garden enterprise produced enough income to get

him through the day and little more. When he went to court, he needed a public assistance attorney (not

that it would’ve made any difference). But the issues he brings forward reverberate through the business

world. Here are a few hypothetical scenarios where libertarian ethics comes into play:

 A massive brewery is constructed upstream from farmland and soaks up most of the water to make beer,

leaving the downstream farms with almost nothing for irrigation. It’s the brewery’s land, so can’t the

owners do what they want with the water running through it?

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A strong libertarian argument offers a reason to say yes. Even though it’s true that others will be severely

harmed by the act, an ethics that begins with the freedom to have what’s mine doesn’t buckle before the

demands of others. Now, compare this outcome with the guidance offered by Kant’s categorical

imperative, the idea that any act must be universalized. Within this framework the opposite conclusion is

reached because if everyone just dammed up the water channeling through his or her land, then the

brewer wouldn’t even have the choice: no water would be flowing across the land in the first place. So a

duty-oriented ethics leads toward a solution that is more favorable for the larger community, where a

rights-based perspective leaves more room for individuality but at the cost of the interests of others.

 Bernie Madoff didn’t start off rich. His father was a plumber in Queens. Even before launching his Ponzi

scheme, he became wealthy by working hard, being smart, and investing wisely. He grew an investment

house from scratch to being among the most prominent in New York. His annual income hit the millions

even without the Ponzi stuff. Possibly, there was an administrative assistant of some kind there with him

from the beginning. She was hired at, say, $32,000 annually. Years later, Madoff is rich, and she’s at

$36,000. She still arrives at work in her beater car while Madoff gets the limousine treatment. Is this fair?

A strong libertarian position gives Madoff a reason to say yes. The wealth did accumulate from his efforts,

not hers. If Madoff hadn’t been there the money wouldn’t have come in, but, if she’d quit on the first day,

he would’ve hired someone else and the end result probably wouldn’t have been much different. The

money, in other words, grew because of Madoff’s efforts, therefore it’s his, and therefore there’s no ethical

obligation to spread it around.

On the other hand, a duty-based orientation would generate concerns about gratitude and respect. These

perennial duties leave room for wealth redistribution. The argument is that Madoff owes the assistant a

higher wage not because of her work performance but as a show of gratitude for her contribution over the

years. Similarly, the duty of respect for others doesn’t demand that everyone be treated equally. It doesn’t

mean everyone should get the same wage, but it does demand that people be respected as equals. This

implies taking into account that the assistant’s efforts were prolonged and significant, just like Madoff’s,

and therefore she should receive a salary more commensurate with his.

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Negative and Positive Rights

The ethics of rights can be categorized as negative rights and positive rights. Negative rights are

fundamental. They require others to not interfere with me and whatever I’m doing. The right to life is the

requirement that others not harm me, the right to freedom is the requirement that others not interfere

with me, the right to speech requires that others not silence me, the right to my possessions and the fruits

of my labors require that others let me keep and use what’s mine.

Positive rights, by contrast, are closer to traditional duties. They’re obligations others have to help protect

and preserve my basic, negative rights. For example, the right to life doesn’t only require (negatively) that

people not harm me, but it also requires (positively) that they come to my aid in life-threatening

situations. If I’m in a car wreck, my right to life requires bystanders to call an ambulance. So if an

individual with a rights-based philosophy and an individual with a duty-based philosophy both arrive on a

crash scene, they’ll do the same thing—just for different reasons. The rights person calls for help to protect

the victim’s right to life; the duties person calls to fulfill the duty to beneficence, the duty to look out for

the welfare of others.

Positive rights can be drawn out to great lengths. For example, the argument is sometimes made that my

basic right to freedom is worthless if I don’t have my health and basic abilities to operate in the world.

This may lead a rights theorist to claim that society owes its member’s health care, education, housing,

and even money in the case of unemployment. Typically, these positive rights are called welfare rights.

Welfare, in this context, doesn’t mean government handouts but minimal social conditions that allow the

members to fully use their intrinsic liberty and pursue happiness with some reasonable hope for success.

The hard question accompanying positive rights is: where’s the line? At what point does my responsibility

to promote the rights of others impinge on my own freedom, my own pursuit of happiness, and my own

life projects?

Rights in Conflict

The deepest internal problems with rights ethics arise when rights conflict. Abortion is a quick, hot-button

example. On one side (pro-life), support comes from the initial principle: a human being, born or not, has

a right to life, which may not be breached. On the other side (pro-choice), every person’s original freedom

over themselves and their bodies ends all discussion. Now, one of the reasons this debate is so intractable

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is that both sides find equally strong support within the same basic ethical framework. There’s no way to

decide without infringing on one right or the other.

A complementary case arose around Lepp’s Rasta religious gatherings. Though many of his neighbors

didn’t care, there were a few who objected to having what was essentially mini-Woodstock on the land

next door. It was impossible, of course, for Lepp to entirely contain the noise, the smoke from fires, the

traffic congestion, and the rest entirely on his property. The question is when does my right to do what I

want on my land need to be curtailed so that your right to dominion over yours isn’t soiled?

Broadening further, there’s the question about Lepp growing marijuana for medicinal purposes. On one

side, a rights theory supports his inclination to grow what he wants on his land and sell the fruits of his

labors to other adults for their consenting use. His is a farming business like any other. But on the other

side, a theory of rights can extend into the realm of positive requirements. The right to the pursuit of

happiness implies a right to health, and this may require government oversight of medical products so

that society as a whole may be protected from fraudulent claims or harmful substances. The question of

marijuana shoots up right here. What happens when socially sanctioned entities like the US Food and

Drug Administration decide that marijuana is harmful and should therefore be prohibited? Which rights

trump the others, the negative right to freedom or the positive right to oversee medical substances?

A similar question comes up between Madoff and his investors. A pure libertarian may say that

individuals have the unfettered right to do as they choose, so if Bernie Madoff lies about investing

strategies and his clients go along with it, well, that’s their problem. As long as they weren’t forced, they’re

free to do whatever they wish with their money, even if that means turning it over to a charlatan. Again

here, however, a broader view of rights theory answers that in the complex world of finance and

investment, the right to the pursuit of happiness is also a right to some governmental oversight designed

to make sure that everyone involved in the financial industry is playing by a single set of rules, ones

prohibiting Ponzi schemes and similar frauds.

Examples multiply easily. I have the right to free speech, but if I falsely yell “fire!” in a crowded theater

and set off a life-threatening stampede, what’s happening to everyone else’s negative right to life and

positive right to health? Leaving the specifics aside, the conclusion is that, in general, problems with

rights theory occur in one of two places:

1. I have negative rights to life, freedom, and my possessions but they infringe on your rights to the same.

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2. I have a right to freedom and to do what I want but that right clashes with larger, society-level protections

put into place to assure everyone a reasonable shot at pursuing their happiness.

What Justifies a Right?

One justification for an ethics of rights is comparable with the earlier-noted idea about duties being part

of the logic of the universe. Both duties and rights exist because that’s the way things are in the moral

world. Just like the laws of physics tell us how far a ball will fly when thrown at a certain speed, so too the

rules of rights tell us what ought to happen and not happen in ethical reality. The English philosopher

John Locke subscribed to this view when he called our rights “natural.” He meant that they’re part of who

we are and what we do and just by living we incarnate them.

Another justification for an ethics of rights is to derive them from the idea of duties. Kant reappears here,

especially his imperative to treat others as ends and not as means to ends. If we are ends in ourselves, if

we possess basic dignity, then that dignity must be reflected somehow: it must have some content, some

meaning, and the case can be made that the content is our possession of certain autonomous rights.

Advantages and Drawbacks of an Ethics Based on Rights

Because of its emphasis on individual liberties, rights theory is very attractive to open-roaders and

individualists. One of the central advantages of a rights ethics is that it clears a broad space for you and

me and everyone else to be ourselves or make ourselves in any way we choose. On the other side of that

strength, however, there’s a disadvantage: centering ethics on the individual leaves little space of

agreement about how we can live together. An ethics of rights doesn’t do a lot to help us resolve our

differences, it does little to promote tolerance, and it offers few guarantees that if I do something

beneficial for you now, you’ll do something beneficial for me later on.

Another strong advantage associated with an ethics of rights is simplicity in the sense that basic rights are

fairly easy to understand and apply. The problem, however, with these blunt and comprehensible rights

comes when two or more of them conflict. In those circumstances it’s hard to know which rights trump

the others. In the case of Lepp’s business—the Medicinal Gardens—it’s hard to be sure when his use of his

land infringed on the rights of neighbors to enjoy their land, and it’s difficult to know when the health

product he offered—marijuana—should be prohibited in the name of the larger right to health for all

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individuals in a society. Most generally, it’s difficult to adjudicate between claims of freedom: where does

mine stop and yours begin?

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Rights are universal and inalienable.

 Basic rights include those to life, freedom, and the pursuit of happiness.

 Rights theory divides negative from positive rights.

 Ethical rights provide for individual freedom but allow few guidelines for individuals living and working

together in a business or in society

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. How does the right to pursue happiness license Lepp’s Medicinal Gardens?

2. What is a libertarian argument against imprisoning Lepp?

3. One justification Lepp cited for his farm was the health benefits marijuana could provide. Assuming Lepp

was right about those benefits, how could they be combined with a rights-based ethics to justify his

activities?

4. How could the rights to freedom and the pursuit of happiness be set against Lepp’s business?

5. What are positive rights and how could they be mustered against Lepp’s farm?

6. If someone drives away from Lepp’s farm high as a kite and soon after drives off the road and into a tree,

does Lepp bear any ethical responsibility for this within a rights ethics?

[1] Elizabeth Larson, “Lepp Sentenced to 10 Years in Federal Prison for Marijuana Case, “Lake County News, May

18, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011,http://lakeconews.com/content/view/8703/764/; Bob Egelko, “Medical Pot

Grower Eddy Lepp Gets 10 Years,” Cannabis Culture Magazine, May 18, 2009, accessed May 11,

2011,http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/content/medical-pot-grower-eddy-lepp-gets-10-years.

[2] Emily Bazar, “Prayer Leads to Work Disputes,” USA Today, October 16, 2008, accessed May 11,

2011, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-10-15-Muslim_N.htm.

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2.5 Case Studies

Skin and Money

Source: Leslie Adams, http://www.ugo.com/the-goods/calculator-tattoo.

In the mid-1980s in Los Angeles, Somen “Steve” Banerjee and his friend Nick DeNoia pooled money to

start a new kind of strip club: men baring it for women. Since they had no idea what they were doing, it

didn’t go well. What finally helped were a couple of showmen from Las Vegas. Steve Merrit and his

partner (professional and romantic) Mark Donnelly came aboard and hatched the idea of a Vegas-type

song-and-dance show wrapped around the disrobing.

To find performers, they cruised the muscle beaches outside LA. They brought the guys back to a studio,

applied some Village People–style outfits (policeman, fireman, construction worker, and so on), and ran

the group through a line-dancing routine.

Their idea was simple but innovative: sex sells; but instead of making the show lustful, they made it

entertaining. Drawing on their Las Vegas experience, Merrit and Donnelly understood how to do it, how

to produce a fun theatrical fantasy instead of a crude flesh show. The general concept made sense and the

execution was professional, but on opening night, no one knew what would happen.

Chippendales exploded. Women went crazy for the performances, first in the United States, then Europe,

and then everywhere as Banerjee and DeNoia rushed to form multiple traveling versions of their

production. The time they didn’t spend together mounting the shows they spent in court fighting over who

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was entitled to how much of the profits and who really owned the suddenly very valuable Chippendales

name and concept. The dispute ended in 1987 after DeNoia was shot dead in his office.

One major problem Chippendales faced is that it wasn’t a hard show to copy. Get some muscled guys,

some uniform-store costumes, a pop music soundtrack, and pound it all together into a dance routine

with a little teasing; you don’t need a genius to do it. So others started.

Michael Fullington was a junior choreographer for Chippendales. He struck up a friendship with some of

the show guys, and they split away into a group called Club Adonis. The original choreographers—Merrit

and Donnelly—also got in on the act, forming their own traveling revue called Night Dreams.

Unhappy with these copycat acts, Banerjee hired a hit man to go around killing the whole bunch. The hit

man, it turned out, was an FBI informant. Banerjee ended up in jail. The ensuing investigation led to more

charges. There was arson (he’d burned down one of his own clubs for the insurance money some time

back) and also another count of conspiracy to murder since it was Banerjee who’d arranged to have his

original partner shot.

The case never got to trial. Banerjee agreed to plead guilty, absorb a twenty-six-year sentence, and give up

his rights to Chippendales along with nearly all his money and real estate holdings.

While the lawyers worked out the details, Banerjee’s wife Irene worked feverishly to organize a group of

character witnesses. By bringing a parade of people to testify about her husband’s good side at the

sentencing hearing, she was hoping to get the jail time reduced a little bit. Or maybe she was hoping to

hold on to more of the money and real estate they’d accumulated.

No one got the chance to testify. On the morning of the hearing, Banerjee hung himself in his cell.

Because the trial was never completed, the plea deal never went into effect. And because the guilty man

was dead, there was no one left to charge with any crime. Chippendales and all the money and property

associated with it went to Banerjee’s wife Irene.

QUE STIONS

1. Is being a Chippendale’s dancer honorable work?

o How could the perennial ethical duties to the self—develop our abilities and talents and do

ourselves no harm—be mustered to support the idea that these men should be proud of what

they do?

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o Ethically, how does this job compare with working for the Metropolitan Opera in New York, an

outfit that calls itself “a vibrant home for the world’s most creative and talented artists working in

opera”?

2. Is hiring and training a Chippendale’s dancer honorable? Imagine you were one of the original

choreographers cruising California beaches in search of beefcake and dance talent. You bring the

guys in, choreograph their routine, and send them up on stage.

o Thinking just of the perennial duties to the self is hiring and training them honorable? Under what

conditions?

o Thinking just of the perennial duties to others—avoiding wrongful actions toward others, honesty,

respect, beneficence (promoting the welfare of others), gratitude, fidelity (keeping promises,

honor agreements), and reparation (compensating others when we harm them)—is hiring and

training them honorable? Why or why not?

3. With respect to the ethics of duties, is Chippendales a respectable company in terms of how it treats its

clients? How does this company compare with the Metropolitan Opera’s treatment of its clients (note that

the Met occasionally replaces the word clients with the more flattering patrons)?

4. Leaving aside the legal issues and using only the perennial duties, what ethical case could be made

in favor of Banerjee getting a hit man to eliminate the people who were copying his show?

o Should he have hired someone or done the job himself? Explain.

o What’s the difference between hiring a hit man and hiring a beefcake dancer?

o How would Kant respond to these questions?

5. The Club Adonis group worked for Chippendales before splitting to do the same thing elsewhere. Use

Kant’s categorical imperative to show that their action was wrong.

6. According to the perennial duties, did Banerjee do the right thing hanging him in the end?

7. According to Kant, did Banerjee do the right thing hanging him?

8. When Banerjee hung himself, he lost his life, but he did manage to preserves his life’s property and wealth

for his wife. Can a libertarian ethics be used to show that Banerjee did the right thing?

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Two at the Same Time

Source: Photo courtesy of Robert Fairchild, http://www.flickr.com/photos/coffeego/3545289824.

On a real estate discussion board, [1] someone with the sign-in name BriGuy23 asks, “Does anyone on here

find any issue with submitting two offers to buy two different apartments at the same time? My friend

thinks that it’s unfair due to the fact that one of the offers is definitely going to not go through which

means they’re tying up the seller’s time (and money in a way). From a seller’s standpoint I think I would

be annoyed but I really don’t see anything wrong with it from a buyer’s perspective. Thoughts?”

A response comes from middle-aged mom: “Sellers can negotiate multiple offers so there is no reason why

a buyer could not make multiple offers on different places. Assuming you are represented by a buyer’s

agent, I would use the same agent to make both offers. Make certain that your contract gives you an out in

the unlikely event both are accepted.”

QUE STIONS

1. What does BriGuy23 suspect might be unethical about submitting two offers to buy two different

apartments at the same time? Can you wrap this suspicion in the language of the duties?

2. Is middle-aged mom appealing to the concept of fairness to justify making multiple offers at the same

time? If she is, then how? If she isn’t, what is her reasoning?

3. If Kant decided to make a contribution to this discussion board, what do you think he would write?

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4. Middle-aged mom writes, “Make certain that your contract gives you an out in the unlikely event both are

accepted.” She means that when you make an offer to buy, you actually offer a signed contract to buy the

apartment; but there’s a catch, an escape clause that lets you pull out if you choose. Is that ethical,

offering a signed contract offering to buy a property that includes an “out”?

5. You need a date for Saturday night.

o Would you have any problem with inviting two different people at the same time (by, say, leaving

a message on both their phones)? Why or why not?

o Would you leave yourself an out in case both answers were yes? If not, why not? If so, what would

it be and how could it be justified ethically?

Working at American Apparel

Photo courtesy of Natalia Rivera, http://www.flickr.com/photos/96952704@N00/317531326/.

Dov Charney is an American immigrant success story, but he’s not exactly a “Give me your tired, your

poor” kind of immigrant. He’s a Canadian who came to America to attend an expensive private university.

He ended up founding American Apparel (AA), a clothing manufacturer producing trendy t-shirts and

basics selling mainly to a young, edgy crowd.

Based in Los Angeles, their factory is among the biggest clothes-making operations in the nation. It

employs almost five thousand workers. Those workers are well known for a number of reasons:

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 Just having workers sets AA apart. Nearly all US clothing manufacturers outsource their cutting and

sewing to poor countries. From Mexico to China, you can find factories paying locals fifty cents an hour to

do the same kind of work they do at AA. The difference is the sewers working in Los Angeles typically get

around fifteen dollars an hour. That’s not a lot in Southern California, but it’s enough to make them—

according to AA—the best paid garment workers in the world.

 The workers don’t report to bosses so much as each other. They organize as independent teams paid a

base wage of eight dollars an hour. On top of that they receive a bonus depending on how much they

produce. So they get together, set their own targets, and go for them. This liberating of the workforce led

to nearly a tripling of output and was matched by about a doubling of wages.

 The company features a generous stock options program to help workers buy shares in the enterprise.

 On its own initiative, the company provides basic health-care services through a clinic tucked into a

factory corner. It provides bikes to employees, helping them zip through the downtown traffic morass

without adding pollution to the infamous city smog. There are free telephones in the factory for employees

to use to call family members at home.

 Many of those employees’ family members are in other countries; AA has a very large immigrant

workforce.

 Many of those immigrants are in the country illegally, which partially explains why the company has been

on the forefront of amnesty campaigns, organizing public rallies and media events of all kinds for the

undocumented. Called Legalize LA, the campaign’s title references the fact that a tremendous number of

Southern Californians outside AA are also illegal immigrants.

 In 2009, the federal government indicated to AA that 1,800 of its workers were using Social Security

numbers and other identifying documents that had been purchased, stolen, or just plain invented. In any

case, they didn’t match up. The company was forced to fire the employees.

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QUE STIONS

1. Workers at Charney’s America Apparel are the highest-paid mass-production sewers in the world.

o In terms of Charney’s duties to the self, what ethical case can be made in favor of this high pay?

o In terms of Charney’s duties to others, what ethical case can be made in favor of this high pay?

o Are these wages fair? Why or why not?

2. In terms of duties—either the perennial duties or Kant’s categorical imperative—which is more

recommendable: keeping the AA plant where and how it is, or moving it to Mexico and cutting the

workers’ wages in half? Why is the decision you’ve made the better of the two?

A few factors to consider:

o In Mexico, the workers’ real pay in terms of local buying power would be much higher, even

though the actual amount is less than what they receive here.

o Many of the workers are illegal immigrants from Mexico; their legal situation would obviously be

remedied and proximity to family would increase.

o The national Mexican economy would benefit more from AA’s presence than does the US

economy.

3. Kant’s categorical imperative requires that others be treated as ends and never as means.

o In what way could the argument be made that the employees at AA are being treated as means,

and therefore Charney’s plant is unethical no matter how high his salaries may be?

o Besides high pay, the company provides workers with considerable freedom to set their own work

pace and schedule. The company also provides a stock purchase program. Do either or both of

these factors alleviate the charge that the workers are treated as means and not end? Why or why

not?

4. Eighteen hundreds of AA’s five thousand workers were using false papers and Social Security

numbers to get their job. Charney knew all about that but chose to overlook it.

o Leaving the law aside, how can that overlooking be justified ethically?

o Leaving the law aside, how can Kant are used to cast that action as ethically wrong in terms of

lying? In terms of stealing? In terms of using people as means instead of ends?

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o Charney and AA support illegal immigrants in two ways: by giving them jobs and by organizing

popular protests in favor of their legalization. Ethically, are these two activities recommendable or

not? Or is one recommendable and the other not?

5. Assuming it’s wrong for illegal immigrants to be working in America, who deserves the sterner ethical

reprobation, Charney or the illegal workers? Explain in ethical terms.

6. The basic and natural rights of mainstream rights theory include the following:

o Life

o Freedom

o Free speech

o Religious expression

o The pursuit of happiness

o Possessions and the fruits of our work

o How can these rights be mustered to support Charney’s hiring and keeping workers he knows are

in the country illegally?

o How can these rights be mustered to ethically denounce Charney for hiring and keeping workers

he knows are in the country illegally?

o Thinking about those workers, do these rights give them an ethical license to use false Social

Security numbers and identifying documents? Why or why not?

7. Eddy Lepp ended up in jail for his medicinal marijuana garden, yet Charney sleeps in a million-dollar beach

house. Is this fair?

Pirates

Source: Photo courtesy of Marco Gomes, http://www.flickr.com/photos/marcogomes/1346283989.

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The following is from an online discussion: [2]

overstand:

I’ve been having problems with copying cds and trying to burn them…when the copy process

gets to 4% the used read buffer will go down to zero and continue fluctuating…will someone

let me know the procedures on fixing this.

Retarded

chicken:

May I ask what CDs are you copying? Usually big companies put copy protection on their CDs

so people don’t ILLEGALLY copy their CDs.

-=iNsAnE=-:

why do people post worthless crap like this? its none of your business what cd’s he’s

copying…don’t accuse him of making illegal copies of cd’s…maybe try posting something

useful next time

Flipside:

It’s not worthless crap mongloid…Copyright protection does prevent the copying of some

disks especially in main-stream programs such as Nero. Try using Clone CD—you may have

better luck with a pure duplication program (No fuss).

QUE STIONS

1. The unanswered question here is whether the CD being copied is copyright protected, in other words,

whether this is a piracy case. Assume it is. If retarded chicken had to fill out an ethical argument against CD

piracy that relied on either the perennial duties or Kant, what could he say?

2. While overstand may be pirating, no one doubts that the original disc is legitimately his. Maybe he bought

it or maybe someone gave it to him; either way, what’s the libertarian argument against retarded chicken?

How could a libertarian justify overstand’s copying?

3. Would a libertarian believe that the company producing the disc has a right to lace it with code that makes

duplication impossible? Explain.

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4. It sounds like Clone CD is specifically made to help pirates get around the copyright protections

manufacturers put on their discs.

o What’s the Kantian case for condemning Clone CD for their project?

o What’s the libertarian case for congratulating them?

Which of the two cases is stronger? Why?

5. Retarded chicken implies that overstand is a thief and -=iNsAnE=- calls retarded chicken’s post

“worthless crap.” Flipside calls -=iNsAnE=- a “mongloid.”

o Is there an ethical case that can be made against the tone of this discussion?

o Does online interaction foster this tone? If so, can an ethical case be made against the existence of

Internet discussion boards?

Gun Shop under Attack

Source: Photo courtesy of jaqian, http://www.flickr.com/photos/jaqian/478574894/.

The headline from a local Oakland newspaper reported that a gun shop is closing due to unfair

taxes. [3] The gun shop’s name was Siegle’s Guns. Closing was inevitable, according to owner Mara Siegle,

after Oakland residents passed Measure D, which levied a huge tax on gun dealers. They had to pay $24

for every $1,000 earned, in comparison to the $1.20 per $1,000 that all the other retailers in Oakland fork

over. “No one can stay in business paying that kind of tax,” Siegle said while preparing her going-out-ofbusiness

sale. “And that’s exactly what Oakland wanted.”

No one disputes the point.

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The disputes are about whether Oakland should want that and whether it’s fair for the city to use taxes as

a weapon.

 Tracy Salkowitz says yes to both. “Except for hunting rifles, the sole purpose of weapons is to kill people.”

Getting rid of gun shops, the logic follows, is a public welfare concern. And about the taxes that brought

the store down? She’s “delighted” by them.

 Mara Siegle’s opinion is that people who don’t hunt and shoot for recreation don’t understand that guns

are a legitimate pastime. “They don’t see this side,” she says, “because they don’t try to.” Further, she

asserts, over the years gun owners have told her that they own guns to defend themselves.

 Outside the store, mingling customers agreed with Siegle. They said closing gun stores was the wrong way

to fight crime and then cursed the city for the unjust taxes.

Amid the winners and losers, Mara Siegle certainly got the rottenest part of the deal. She has two sons,

fifteen and seventeen, and she doesn’t know what she’ll do for income. “I need a job,” she said.

A hand-lettered sign posted in the store’s backroom for the benefit of Siegle’s five full-time employees

displayed the phone number of the unemployment office. The sign said, “You paid for it, use it.”

QUE STIONS

1. With an eye on the concept of fairness, form an argument in favor of the drastically higher taxes imposed

on gun shops.

2. Kant’s categorical imperative prohibits killing. Can it be transformed into an argument against a gun shop

in Oakland?

3. Would an ethics of duties or an ethics of rights work better for Siegle as she defends her business? Why?

What might her argument look like?

4. Unemployment benefits are the result of unemployment insurance, which is not optional.

Workers are forced to pay a bit out of each paycheck to the federal government, and if they lose

their job, they get a biweekly check partially covering lost wages.

o Would a libertarian approve of the unemployment insurance program?

o Would it be right for a libertarian gun shop owner—someone defending her business on

libertarian grounds—to accept unemployment benefits after her shop is forced out of business by

extreme taxes? Explain.

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[1] “Ethical dilemma with submitting two offers at once? (contingency, clause, agent),” City-Data, accessed May

11, 2011, http://www.city-data.com/forum/real-estate/710433-ethical-dilemma-submitting-two-offers-once.html.

[2] “My cd-burner won’t let me copy the cd…why…,” Hard forum, accessed May 11,

2011,http://www.hardforum.com/archive/index.php/t-711331.html.

[3] Alexandra J. Wall, “Jewish Gun shop Owner Closing Store; Cites Unfair Taxes,” Jweekly, July 21, 2000, accessed

May 11, 2011,http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/13657/jewish-gunshop-owner-closing-store-cites-unfair-taxes.

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Chapter 3

Theories of Consequence Ethics: Traditional Tools for

Making Decisions in Business when the Ends Justify

the Means

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Chapter Overview

Chapter 3 “Theories of Consequence Ethics: Traditional Tools for Making Decisions in Business when the

Ends Justify the Means” examines some theories guiding ethical decisions in business. It considers ethics

that focuses on the consequences of what is done instead of prohibiting or allowing specific acts.

3.1 What Is Consequentialism?

L EARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Define consequentialism in ethics.

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Consequentialism Defined

What’s more important in ethics—what you do or what happens afterward because of what you did?

People who believe ethics should be about what happens afterward are labeled consequentialists. They

don’t care so much about your act; they want to know about the consequences.

If someone asks, “Should I lie?,” one answer is, “No, lying’s wrong. We all have a duty not to lie and

therefore you shouldn’t do it, no matter what.” That’s not the consequentialist answer, though.

Consequentialists will want to know about the effects. If the lie is about Bernie Madoff assuring everyone

that he’s investing clients’ money in stocks when really he plans to steal it, that’s wrong. But if a

defrauded, livid, and pistol-waving client tracks Madoff down on a crowded street and demands to know

whether he’s Bernie Madoff, the ethically recommendable response might be, “People say I look like him,

but really I’m Bill Martin.” The question, finally, for a consequentialist isn’t whether or not I should lie,

it’s what happens if I do and if I don’t?

Since consequentialists are more worried about the outcome than the action, the central ethical concern

is what kind of outcome should I want? Traditionally, there are three kinds of answers: the utilitarian,

the altruist, and the egoist. Each one will be considered in this chapter.

KEY TAKEAWAY

 Consequentialist ethicists focus on the results of what you do, not what you do.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Under what scenario could a consequentialist defend the act of stealing?

2. Could a consequentialist recommend that a toy company lie about the age level a toy is designed for?

What would be an example?

3.2 Utilitarianism: The Greater Good

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define utilitarian ethics.

2. Show how utilitarianism works in business.

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3. Distinguish forms of utilitarianism.

4. Consider advantages and drawbacks of utilitarianism.

The College Board and Karen Dillard

“Have you seen,” the blog post reads, “their parking lot on a Saturday?” [1] Its packed. The lot belongs to

Karen Dillard College Prep (KDCP), a test-preparation company in Dallas. Like the Princeton Review,

they offer high schoolers courses designed to boost performance on the SAT. Very little real learning goes

on in these classrooms; they’re more about techniques and tricks for maximizing scores. Test takers

should know, for example, whether a test penalizes incorrect answers. If it doesn’t, you should take a few

minutes at each section’s end to go through and just fill in a random bubble for all the questions you

couldn’t reach so you’ll get some cheap points. If there is a penalty, though, then you should use your time

to patiently work forward as far as you can go. Knowing the right strategy here can significantly boost

your score. It’s a waste of brain space, though, for anything else in your life.

Some participants in KDCP—who paid as much as $2,300 for the lessons—definitely got some score

boosting for their money. It was unfair boosting, however; at least that’s the charge of the College Board,

the company that produces and administers the SAT.

Here’s what happened. A KDCP employee’s brother was a high school principal, and he was there when

the SATs were administered. At the end of those tests, everyone knows what test takers are instructed to

do: stack the bubble sheets in one pile and the test booklets in the other and leave. The administrators

then wrap everything up and send both the answer sheets and the booklets back to the College Board for

scoring. The principal, though, was pulling a few test booklets out of the stack and sending them over to

his brother’s company, KDCP. As it turns out, some of these pilfered tests were “live”—that is, sections of

them were going to be used again in future tests. Now, you can see how getting a look at those booklets

would be helpful for someone taking those future tests.

Other stolen booklets had been “retired,” meaning the specific questions inside were on their final

application the day the principal grabbed them. So at least in these cases, students taking the test-prep

course couldn’t count on seeing the very same questions come exam day. Even so, the College Board

didn’t like this theft much better because they sell those retired tests to prep companies for good money.

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When the College Board discovered the light-fingered principal and the KDCP advantage, they launched a

lawsuit for infringement of copyright. Probably figuring they had nothing to lose, KDCP sued back. [2]

College Board also threatened—and this is what produced headlines in the local newspaper—to cancel the

scores of the students who they determined had received an unfair advantage from the KDCP course.

As Denton Record-Chronicle reported (and as you can imagine), the students and their families freaked

out. [3] The scores and full application packages had already been delivered to colleges across the country,

and score cancellation would have amounted to application cancellation. And since many of the students

applied only to schools requiring the SAT, the threat amounted to at least temporary college cancellation.

“I hope the College Board thinks this through,” said David Miller, a Plano attorney whose son was

apparently on the blacklist. “If they have a problem with Karen Dillard, that’s one thing. But I hope they

don’t punish kids who wanted to work hard.”

Predictably, the episode crescendo with everyone lawyered up and suits threatened in all directions. In the

end, the scores weren’t canceled. KDCP accepted a settlement calling for them to pay $600,000 directly to

the College Board and provide $400,000 in free classes for high schoolers who’d otherwise be unable to

afford the service. As for the principal who’d been lifting the test booklets, he got to keep his job, which

pays about $87,000 a year. The CEO of College Board, by the way, gets around $830,000. [4] KDCP is a

private company, so we don’t know how much Karen Dillard or her employees make. We do know they

could absorb a million-dollar lawsuit without going into bankruptcy. Finally, the Plano school district in

Texas—a well-to-do suburb north of Dallas—continues to produce some of the nation’s highest SAT score

averages.

One Thief, Three Verdicts

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethics—the outcome matters, not the act. Among those who focus on

outcomes, the utilitarian’s distinguishing belief is that we should pursue the greatest good for the

greatest number. So we can act in whatever way we choose—we can be generous or miserly, honest or

dishonest—but whatever we do, to get the utilitarian’s approval, the result should be more people happier.

If that is the result, then the utilitarian needs to know nothing more to label the act ethically

recommendable. (Note: Utility is a general term for usefulness and benefit, thus the theory’s name. In

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everyday language, however, we don’t talk about creating a greater utility but instead a greater good or

happiness.)

In rudimentary terms, utilitarianism is a happiness calculation. When you’re considering doing

something, you take each person who’ll be affected and ask whether they’ll end up happier, sadder, or it

won’t make any difference. Now, those who won’t change don’t need to be counted. Next, for each person

who’s happier, ask, how much happier? Put that amount on one side. For each who’s sadder, ask, how

much sadder? That amount goes on the other side. Finally, add up each column and the greater sum

indicates the ethically recommendable decision.

Utilitarian ethics function especially well in cases like this: You’re on the way to take the SAT, which will

determine how the college application process goes (and, it feels like, more or less your entire life). Your

car breaks down and you get there very late and the monitor is closing the door and you remember

that…you forgot your required number 2 pencils. On a desk in the hall you notice a pencil. It’s gnawed and

abandoned but not yours. Do you steal it? Someone who believes it’s an ethical duty to not steal will

hesitate. But if you’re a utilitarian you’ll ask: Does taking it serve the greater good? It definitely helps you

a lot, so there’s positive happiness accumulated on that side. What about the victim? Probably whoever

owns it doesn’t care too much. Might not even notice it’s gone. Regardless, if you put your increased

happiness on one side and weigh it against the victim’s hurt on the other, the end result is almost certainly

a net happiness gain. So with a clean conscience you grab it and dash into the testing room. According to

utilitarian reasoning, you’ve done the right thing ethically (assuming the pencil’s true owner isn’t coming

up behind you in the same predicament).

Pushing this theory into the KDCP case, one tense ethical location is the principal lifting test booklets and

sending them over to his brother at the test-prep center. Everything begins with a theft. The booklets do

in fact belong to the College Board; they’re sent around for schools to use during testing and are meant to

be returned afterward. So here there’s already the possibility of stopping and concluding that the

principal’s act is wrong simply because stealing is wrong. Utilitarian’s, however, don’t want to move so

quickly. They want to see the outcome before making an ethical judgment. On that front, there are two

distinct outcomes: one covering the live tests, and the other the retired ones.

Live tests were those with sections that may appear again. When students at KDCP received them for

practice, they were essentially receiving cheat sheets. Now for a utilitarian, the question is, does the

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situation serve the general good? When the testing’s done, the scores are reported, and the college

admissions decisions made, will there be more overall happiness then there would’ve been had the tests

not been stolen? It seems like the answer has to be no. Obviously those with great scores will be smiling,

but many, many others will see their scores drop (since SATs are graded on a curve or as a percentile). So

there’s some major happiness for a few on one side balanced by unhappiness for many on the other. Then

things get worse. When the cheating gets revealed, the vast majority of test takers who didn’t get the edge

are going to be irritated, mad, or furious. Their parents too. Remember, it’s not only admission that’s at

stake here but also financial aid, so the students who didn’t get the KDCP edge worry not only that maybe

they should’ve gotten into a better school but also that they end up paying more too. Finally, the colleges

will register a net loss: all their work in trying to admit students on the basis of fair, equal evaluations gets

thrown into question.

Conclusion. The theft of live tests fails the utilitarian test. While a few students may come out better off

and happier, the vast majority more than balances the effect with disappointment and anger. The greater

good isn’t served.

In the case of the theft of “retired” tests where the principal forwarded to KDCP test questions that won’t

reappear on future exams, it remains true that the tests were lifted from the College Board and it remains

true that students who took the KDCP prep course will receive an advantage because they’re practicing the

SAT. But the advantage doesn’t seem any greater than the one enjoyed by students all around the nation

who purchased prep materials directly from the College Board and practiced for the exam by taking old

tests. More—and this was a point KDCP made in their countersuit against the College Board—stealing the

exams was the ethically right thing to do because it assured that students taking the KDCP prep course

got the same level of practice and expertise as those using official College Board materials. If the tests

hadn’t been stolen, then wouldn’t KDCP kids be at an unfair disadvantage when compared with others

because their test practices hadn’t been as close to the real thing as others got? In the end, the argument

goes, stealing the tests assured that as many people as possible who took prep courses got to practice on

real exams.

Conclusion. The theft of the exams by the high school principal may conceivably be congratulated by a

utilitarian because it increases general happiness. The students who practiced on old exams purchased

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from the College Board can’t complain. And as for those students at KDCP, their happiness increases since

they can be confident that they’ve prepared as well as possible for the SAT.

The fact that a utilitarian argument can be used to justify the theft of test booklets, at least retired ones,

doesn’t end the debate, however. Since the focus is on outcomes, all of them have to be considered. And

one outcome that might occur if the theft is allowed is, obviously, that maybe other people will start

thinking stealing exam books isn’t such a bad idea. If they do—if everyone decides to start stealing—it’s

hard to see how anything could follow but chaos, anger, and definitely not happiness.

This discussion could continue as more people and consequences are factored in, but what won’t change is

the basic utilitarian rule. What ought to be done is determined by looking at the big picture and deciding

which acts increase total happiness at the end of the day when everyone is taken into account.

Should the Scores Be Canceled?

After it was discovered that KDCP students got to practice for the SATs with live exams, the hardest

question facing the College Board was, should their scores be canceled? The utilitarian argument

for not canceling is straightforward. Those with no scores may not go to college at all next year. This is

real suffering, and if your aim is to increase happiness, then counting the exams is one step in that

direction. It’s not the last step, though, because utilitarian’s at the College Board need to ask

about everyone else’s happiness too: what’s the situation for all the others who took the exam but has

never heard of KDCP? Unfortunately, letting the scores be counted is going to subtract from their

happiness because the SAT is graded comparatively: one person doing well means everyone getting fewer

correct answers sees their score drop, along with college choices and financial aid possibilities. Certainly

it’s true that each of these decreases will be small since there were only a handful of suspect tests. Still, a

descent, no matter how tiny, is a descent, and all the little bits add up.

What’s most notable, finally, about this decision is the imbalance. Including the scores of KDCP students

will weigh a tremendous increase in happiness for a very few against a slight decrease for very many.

Conversely, a few will be left very sad, and many slightly happier. So for a utilitarian, which is it? It’s hard

to say. It is clear, however, that this uncertainty represents a serious practical problem with the ethical

theory. In some situations you can imagine yourself in the shoes of the different people involved and,

using your own experience and knowledge, estimate which decision will yield the most total happiness. In

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this situation, though, it seems almost impossible because there are so many people mixed up in the

question.

Then things get still more difficult. For the utilitarian, it’s not enough to just decide what brings the most

happiness to the most individuals right now; the future needs to be accounted for too. Utilitarianism is a

true global ethics; you’re required to weigh everyone’s happiness and weigh it as best as you can as far into

the future as possible. So if the deciders at the College Board follow a utilitarian route in opting to include

(or cancel) the scores, they need to ask themselves—if we do, how will things be in ten years? In fifty?

Again, these are hard questions but they don’t change anything fundamental. For the utilitarian, making

the right decision continues to be about attempting to predict which choice will maximize happiness.

Utilitarianism and the Ethics of Salaries

When he wasn’t stealing test booklets and passing them on to KDCP, the principal in the elite Plano

school district was dedicated to his main job: making sure students in his building receive an education

qualifying them to do college-level work. Over at the College Board, the company’s CEO leads a

complementary effort: producing tests to measure the quality of that preparation and consequently

determine students’ scholastic aptitude. The principal, in other words, is paid to make sure high schoolers

get an excellent education, and the CEO is paid to measure how excellent (or not) the education is.

Just from the job descriptions, who should get the higher salary? It’s tempting to say the principal.

Doesn’t educating children have to be more important than measuring how well they’re educated?

Wouldn’t we all rather be well educated and not know it than poorly educated and painfully aware of the

fact?

Regardless, what’s striking about the salary that each of these two actually receives isn’t who gets more;

it’s how much. The difference is almost ten times: $87,000 for the principal versus the CEO’s $830,000.

Within the doctrine of utilitarianism, can such a divergence be justified?

Yes, but only if we can show that this particular salary structure brings about the greatest good, the

highest level of happiness for everyone considered as a collective. It may be, for example, that objectively

measuring student ability, even though it’s less important than instilling ability, is also much harder. In

that case, a dramatically higher salary may be necessary in order to lure high-quality measuring talent.

From there, it’s not difficult to fill out a utilitarian justification for the pay divergence. It could be that

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100

inaccurate testing would cause large amounts of unhappiness: students who worked hard for years would

be frustrated when they were bettered by slackers who really didn’t know much but managed to score well

on a test.

To broaden the point, if tremendous disparities in salary end up making people happier, then the

disparities are ethical. Period. If they don’t, however, then they can no longer be defended. This differs

from what a libertarian rights theorist might say here. For a libertarian—someone who believes

individuals have an undeniable right to make and keep whatever they can in the world, regardless of how

rich or poor anyone else may be—the response to the CEO’s mammoth salary is that he found a way to

earn it fair and square, and everyone should quit complaining about it. Generalized happiness doesn’t

matter, only the individual’s right to try to earn and keep as much as he or she can.

Can Money Buy Utilitarian Happiness? The Ford Pinto Case

Basic questions in business tend to be quantitative, and money is frequently the bottom line: How many

dollars is it worth? What’s my salary? What’s the company’s profit? The basic question of utilitarianism

is qualitative: how much happiness and sadness is there? Inevitably, it’s going to be difficult when

businesses accustomed to bottom-line number decisions are forced to cross over and decide about general

happiness. One of the most famous attempts to make the transition easier occurred back in the 1970s.

With gas prices on the rise, American car buyers were looking for smaller, more efficient models than

Detroit was manufacturing. Japanese automakers were experts in just those kinds of vehicles and they

were seizing market share at an alarming rate. Lee Iacocca, Ford’s president, wanted to rush a car into

production to compete. His model was the Pinto. [5]

A gas sipper slated to cost $2,000 (about $12,000 today); Ford rushed the machine through early

production and testing. Along the way, unfortunately, they noticed a design problem: the gas tank’s

positioning in the car’s rump left it vulnerable to rear-end collisions. In fact, when the rear-end hit came

faster than twenty miles per hour, not only might the tank break, but gasoline could be splattered all the

way up to the driver’s compartment. Fire, that meant, ignited by sparks or anything else could engulf

those inside.

No car is perfectly safe, but this very scary vulnerability raised eyebrows. At Ford, a debate erupted about

going ahead with the vehicle. On the legal end, the company stood on solid ground: government

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101

regulation at the time only required gas tanks to remain intact at collisions under twenty miles per hour.

What about the ethics, though? The question about whether it was right to charge forward was

unavoidable because rear-end accidents at speeds greater than twenty miles per hour happen—every day.

The decision was finally made in utilitarian terms. On one side, the company totaled up the dollar cost of

redesigning the car’s gas tank. They calculated

 12.5 million automobiles would eventually be sold,

 eleven dollars would be the final cost per car to implement the redesign.

Added up, that’s $137 million total, with the money coming out of Pinto buyers’ pockets since the added

production costs would get tacked onto the price tag. It’s a big number but it’s not that much per person:

$11 is about $70 today. In this way, the Pinto situation faced by Ford executives is similar to the test

cancellation question for the College Board: one option means only a little bit of suffering for specific

individuals, but there are a lot of them.

On the other side of the Pinto question—and, again, this resembles the College Board predicament—if the

decision is made to go ahead without the fix, there’s going to be a lot of suffering but only for a very few

people. Ford predicted the damage done to those few people in the following ways:

 Death by burning for 180 buyers

 Serious burn injuries for another 180 buyers

 Twenty-one hundred vehicles burned beyond all repair

That’s a lot of damage, but how do you measure it? How do you compare it with the hike in the price tag?

More generally, from a utilitarian perspective, is it better for a lot of people to suffer a little or for a few

people to suffer a lot?

Ford answered both questions by directly attaching monetary values to each of the injuries and damages

suffered:

 At the time, 1970, US Government regulatory agencies officially valued a human life at $200,000. (That

would be about $1.2 million today if the government still kept this problematic measure.)

 Insurance companies valued a serious burn at $67,000.

 The average resale value on subcompacts like the Pinto was $700, which set that as the amount lost after a

complete burnout.

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The math coming out from this is (180 deaths Å~ $200,000) + (180 injuries Å~ $67,000) + (2,100 burnedout

cars Å~ $700) = $49 million. The result here is $137 million worth of suffering for Pinto drivers if the

car is redesigned and only $49 million if it goes to the streets as is.

Ford sent the Pinto out. Over the next decade, according to Ford estimates, at least 60 people died in fiery

accidents and at least 120 got seriously burned (skin-graft-level burns). No attempt was made to calculate

the total number of burned vehicles. Shortly thereafter, the Pinto was phased out. No one has final

numbers, but if the first decade is any indication, then the total cost came in under the original $49

million estimate. According to a utilitarian argument, and assuming the premises concerning dollar

values are accepted, Ford made the right decision back in 1970.

If every Pinto purchaser had been approached the day after buying the car, told the whole Ford story, and

been offered to change their car along with eleven dollars for another one without the gas tank problem,

how many would’ve handed the money over to avoid the long-shot risk? The number might’ve been very

high, but that doesn’t sway a utilitarian conclusion. The theory demands that decision makers stubbornly

keep their eye on overall happiness no matter how much pain a decision might cause certain individuals.

Versions of Utilitarian Happiness

Monetized utilitarianism attempts to measure happiness, to the extent possible, in terms of money. As the

Ford Pinto case demonstrated, the advantage here is that it allows decisions about the greater good to be

made in clear, objective terms. You add up the money on one side and the money on the other and the

decision follows automatically. This is a very attractive benefit, especially when you’re dealing with large

numbers of individuals or complex situations. Monetized utilitarianism allows you to keep your happiness

calculations straight.

Two further varieties of utilitarianism are hedonistic and idealistic. Both seek to maximize human

happiness, but their definitions of happiness differ. Hedonistic utilitarian’s trace back to Jeremy Bentham

(England, around 1800). Bentham was a wealthy and odd man who left his fortune to the University

College of London along with the stipulation that his mummified body be dressed and present at the

institution. It remains there today. He sits in a wooden cabinet in the main building, though his head has

been replaced by a wax model after pranking students repeatedly stole the real one. Bentham believed

that pleasure and happiness are ultimately synonymous. Ethics, this means, seeks to maximize the

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pleasures—just about any sensation of pleasure—felt by individuals. But before dropping everything and

heading out to the bars, it should be remembered that even the most hedonistic of the utilitarian’s believe

that getting pleasure right now is good but not as good as maximizing the feeling over the long term.

(Going out for drinks, in others words, instead of going to the library isn’t recommendable on the evening

before midterms.)

A contemporary of Bentham, John Stuart Mill, basically agreed that ethics is about maximizing pleasure,

but his more idealistic utilitarianism distinguished low and highbrow sensations. The kinds of raw, good

feelings that both we and animals can find, according to Mill, are second-rate pleasures. Pleasures with

higher and more real value include learning and learnedness. These aren’t physical joys so much as the

delights of the mind and the imagination. For Mill, consequently, libraries and museums are scenes of

abundant pleasure, much more than any bar.

This idealistic notion of utilitarianism fits quite well with the College Board’s response to the KDCP

episode. First, deciding against canceling student scores seems like a way of keeping people on track to

college and headed toward the kind of learning that rewards our cerebral inclinations. Further, awarding

free prep classes to those unable to pay seems like another step in that direction, at least if it helps get

them into college.

Versions of Utilitarian Regulation

A narrow distinction with far-reaching effects divides soft from hard utilitarianism. Soft utilitarianism is

the standard version; when people talk about a utilitarian ethics, that’s generally what they mean. As a

theory, soft utilitarianism is pretty laid back: an act is good if the outcome is more happiness in the world

than we had before. Hard utilitarianism, on the other hand, demands more: an act is ethically

recommendable only if the total benefits for everyone are greater than those produced by any other act.

According to the hard version, it’s not enough to do well; you must do the most good possible. As an

example, think about the test-prep company KDCP under the microscope of utilitarian examination.

 When a soft utilitarian looks at KDCP, the company comes out just fine. High schoolers are learning testtaking

skills and tricks that they’ll only use once but will help in achieving a better score and leave behind

a sense that they’ve done all they can to reach their college goals. That means the general happiness level

probably goes up—or at worst holds steady—because places like KDCP are out there.

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 When a hard utilitarian looks at KDCP, however, the company doesn’t come off so well. Can we really say

that this enterprise’s educational subject—test taking—is the very best use of teaching resources in terms

of general welfare and happiness? And what about the money? Is SAT prep really the best way for society

to spend its dollars? Wouldn’t a hard utilitarian have to recommend that the tuition money collected by

the test-prep company get siphoned off to pay for, say, college tuition for students who otherwise wouldn’t

be able to continue their studies at all?

If decisions about businesses are totally governed by the need to create the most happiness possible, then

companies like KDCP that don’t contribute much to social well-being will quickly become endangered.

The demands of hard utilitarianism can be layered onto the ethical decision faced by the College Board in

their courtroom battle with KDCP. Ultimately, the College Board opted to penalize the test-prep company

by forcing it to offer some free classes for underprivileged students. Probably, the result was a bit more

happiness in the world. The result wasn’t, however, the most happiness possible. If hard utilitarianism

had driven the decision, then the College Board would’ve been forced to go for the jugular against KDCP,

strip away all the money they could, and then use it to do the most good possible, which might have meant

setting up a scholarship fund or something similar. That’s just a start, though. Next, to be true to hard

utilitarianism, the College Board would need to focus on itself with hard questions. The costs of creating

and applying tests including the SAT are tremendous, which makes it difficult to avoid this question:

wouldn’t society as a whole be better off if the College Board were to be canceled and all their resources

dedicated to, for example, creating a new university for students with learning disabilities?

Going beyond KDCP and the College Board, wouldn’t almost any private company fall under the threat of

appropriation if hard utilitarian’s ran the world? While it’s true, for example, that the money spent on

steak and wine at expensive Las Vegas restaurants probably increases happiness a bit, couldn’t that same

cash do a lot more for the general welfare of people whose income makes Las Vegas an impossibly

expensive dream? If it could, then the hard utilitarian will propose zipping up Las Vegas and rededicating

the money.

Finally, since utilitarianism is about everyone’s total happiness, don’t hard questions start coming up

about world conditions? Is it possible to defend the existence of McDonald’s in the United States while

people are starving in other countries?

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Conclusion. In theory, there’s not much divergence between soft and hard utilitarianism. But in terms of

what actually happens out in the world when the theory gets applied, that’s a big difference. For private

companies, it’s also a dangerous one.

Two further versions of utilitarian regulation are act and rule. Act utilitarianism affirms that a specific

action is recommended if it increases happiness. This is the default form of utilitarianism, and what

people usually mean when they talk about the theory. The separate rule-based version asserts that an

action is morally right if it follows a rule that, when applied to everyone, increases general happiness.

The rule utilitarian asks whether we’d all be benefitted if everyone obeyed a rule such as “don’t steal.” If

we would—if the general happiness level increases because the rule is there—then the rule utilitarian

proposes that we all adhere to it. It’s important to note that rule utilitarian’s aren’t against stealing

because it’s intrinsically wrong, as duty theorists may propose. The rule utilitarian is only against stealing

if it makes the world less happy. If tomorrow it turns out that mass stealing serves the general good, then

theft becomes the ethically right thing to do.

The sticky point for rule utilitarian’s involves special cases. If we make the rule that theft is wrong,

consider what happens in the case from the chapter’s beginning: You forgot your pencil on SAT test day,

and you spot one lying on an abandoned desk. If you don’t take it, no one’s going to be any happier, but

you’ll be a lot sadder. So it seems like rule utilitarianism verges on defeating its own purpose, which is

maximizing happiness no matter what.

On the other hand, there are also sticky points for act utilitarian’s. For example, if I go to Wal-Mart

tonight and steal a six-pack of beer, I’ll be pretty happy. And assuming I don’t get caught, no one will be

any sadder. The loss to the company—a few dollars—will disappear in a balance sheet so huge that it’s

hard to count the zeros. Of course if everyone starts stealing beers, that will cause a problem, but in

practical terms, if one person does it once and gets away with it, it seems like an act utilitarian would have

to approve. The world would be a happier place.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Utilitarian Ethics in Business

Basic utilitarianism is the soft, act version. These are the theory’s central advantages:

 Clarity and simplicity. In general terms, it’s easy to understand the idea that we should all act to

increase the general welfare.

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 Acceptability. The idea of bringing the greatest good to the greatest number coheres with common and

popular ideas about what ethical guidance is supposed to provide.

 Flexibility. The weighing of individual actions in terms of their consequences allows for meaningful and

firm ethical rules without requiring that everyone be treated identically no matter how different the

particular situation. So the students whose scores were suspended by the College Board could see them

reinstated, but that doesn’t mean the College Board will take the same action in the future (if, say, large

numbers of people start stealing test booklets).

 Breadth. The focus on outcomes as registered by society overall makes the theory attractive for those

interested in public policy. Utilitarianism provides a foundation and guidance for business regulation by

government.

The central difficulties and disadvantages of utilitarianism include the following:

 Subjectivity. It can be hard to make the theory work because it’s difficult to know what makes happiness

and unhappiness for specific individuals. When the College Board demanded that KDCP give free classes

to underprivileged high schoolers, some paying students were probably happy to hear the news, but

others probably fretted about paying for what others received free. And among those who received the

classes, probably the amount of resulting happiness varied between them.

 Quantification. Happiness can’t be measured with a ruler or weighed on a scale; it’s hard to know

exactly how much happiness and unhappiness any particular act produces. This translates into confusion

at decision time. (Monetized utilitarianism, like that exhibited in the case of the Ford Pinto, responds to

this confusion.)

 Apparent injustices. Utilitarian principles can produce specific decisions that seem wrong. A quick

example is the dying grandmother who informs her son that she’s got $200,000 stuffed into her mattress.

She asks the son to divide the money with his brother. This brother, however, is a gambling alcoholic

who’ll quickly fritter away his share. In that case, the utilitarian would recommend that the other

brother—the responsible one with children to put through college—just keep all the money. That would

produce the most happiness, but do we really want to deny grandma her last wish?

 The utilitarian monster is a hypothetical individual who really knows how to feel good. Imagine that

someone or a certain group of people were found to have a much greater capacity to experience happiness

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than others. In that case, the strict utilitarian would have no choice but to put everyone else to work

producing luxuries and other pleasures for these select individuals. In this hypothetical situation, there

could even be an argument for forced labor as long as it could be shown that the servants’ suffering was

minor compared to the great joy celebrated by those few who were served. Shifting this into economic and

business terms, there’s a potential utilitarian argument here for vast wage disparities in the workplace.

 The utilitarian sacrifice is the selection of one person to suffer terribly so that others may be pleasured.

Think of gladiatorial games in which a few contestants suffer miserably, but a tremendous number of

spectators enjoy the thrill of the contest. Moving the same point from entertainment into the business of

medical research, there’s a utilitarian argument here for drafting individuals—even against their will—to

endure horrifying medical experiments if it could be shown that the experiments would, say, cure cancer,

and so create tremendous happiness in the future.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Utilitarianism judges specific decisions by examining the decision’s consequences.

 Utilitarianism defines right and wrong in terms of the happiness of a society’s members.

 Utilitarian ethics defines an act as good when its consequences bring the greatest good or happiness to

the greatest number of people.

 There are a variety of specific forms of utilitarianism.

 Theoretically, utilitarianism is straightforward, but in practical terms it can be difficult to measure the

happiness of individuals.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What is a utilitarian argument in favor of a college education? How does it differ from other reasons you

might want to go to college or graduate school?

2. How could a utilitarian justify cheating on an exam?

3. What is a “global ethics”?

4. What practical problem with utilitarianism is (to some degree) resolved by monetized utilitarianism?

5. What are two advantages of a utilitarian ethics when compared with an ethics of duties?

6. What are two disadvantages of a utilitarian ethics when compared with an ethics of duties?

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7. What’s an example from today’s world of a utilitarian monster?

8. What’s an example from today’s world of a utilitarian sacrifice?

[1] “CB-Karen Dillard Case Settled-No Cancelled Scores,” College Confidential, accessed May 15,

2011, http://talk.collegeconfidential.com/parents-forum/501843-cb-karen-dillard-case-settled-no-cancelledscores.

html.

[2] Paulina Mis, “College Board Sues Test-Prep Company, Countersuit Filed,” Scholarships.com, February 26, 2008,

accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.scholarships.com/blog/high-school/college-board-sues-test-prep-companycountersuit-

filed/161.

[3] Staci Hupp, “SAT Scores for Students Who Used Test Prep Firm May Be Thrown Out, “Denton Record Chronicle,

February 22, 2008, accessed May 15, 2011.

[4] “AETR Report Card,” Americans for Educational Testing Reform, accessed May 15,

2011, http://www.aetr.org/college-board.php.

[5] Case facts taken from Manuel Velasquez, Business Ethics, Concepts and Cases, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006), 60–61.

3.3 Altruism: Everyone Else

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define altruistic ethics.

2. Show how altruism works in and with business.

3. Consider advantages and drawbacks of altruism.

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TOMS Shoes

There is no Tom at TOMS Shoes. The company’s name actually came from the title for its social cause:

Shoes for Tomorrow. Tomorrow shoes—TOMS Shoes. The shoes are given away to needy children in

Argentina at a one-to-one rate: for every pair bought in the United States, TOMS delivers a pair down

there.

They’re needed in Argentina’s poverty-stricken regions to prevent the spread of an infectious disease, one

that flourishes in the local soil and rises up through the feet. A pair of shoes is all that’s needed to block

the problem.

The project started when young Texan entrepreneur Blake Mycoskie vacationed in Argentina. Not the type

to luxuriate in the hotel pool, he got out and learned about the country, good and bad, the food, the

sweeping geography, the poverty and diseases. The foot infection, he discovered, was so devastating yet so

easy to block that, according to his company’s website, he decided he had to do something about

it. [1] Initially, he contemplated a charitable fund to buy shoes for the needy children, but that left his

project subject to the ebb and flow of others’ generosity. It’d be better and more reliable, he determined,

to link the community-service project with private enterprise and use revenues from a company to fund

the charity. Quickly, Mycoskie determined that he could make the whole machine work most efficiently by

starting a shoe company. Simultaneously, he could produce shoes for donation and shoes for sale to

finance the effort. So we have TOMS Shoes.

Next, a kind of shoe to produce and sell was required. Mycoskie found inspiration in Argentina’s

traditional alpargata. This is a cheap, workingman’s shoe, a slip-on made from canvas with rope

soles. [2] For the American adaptation, Mycoskie strengthened the sole, styled and colored the canvas, and

added a brand label. The price also got jacked up. The originals cost a few dollars in Argentina; the

adaptations cost about forty dollars here.

They’re a splashy hit. You find TOMS Shoes at trendy footwear shops, at Whole Foods grocery stores, and

all over the Internet. At last check, about half a million pairs have been sold and an equal number

donated. Total sales in seven figures aren’t far off, and the company was recently featured on a CNBC

segment as an American business success story. Notably, TOMS achieved recognition on national TV

sooner after its inception than almost any other enterprise in the program’s history. It all happened in

fewer than four years.

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Question: how did it get so big so fast? How did some guy transform from a wandering tourist to a captain

of the shoe industry in less time than it takes to get a college degree? Answer: celebrities.

Blake Mycoskie’s got a warm, round face and a perfect smile. He’s got money from his pre-shoe projects

and he’s smart too. He’s also got that contemporary bohemian look down with his bead necklace and

wavy, shoulder-length hair. There’s no letdown beneath the chin line either; he’s fit (he was a tennis pro

until nineteen). You get the idea. He commands attention from even Hollywood women, and he ended up

coupled with the midrange star Maggie Grace. He introduced her to his TOMS Shoes concept, gave her a

few pairs to wear around and show friends, and the ball started rolling. [3]

A few parties later, Scarlett Johansson, Jessica Biel, Benicio Del Toro, Tobey Maguire, Sienna Miller, and

Karl Lagerfeld were parading around in TOMS Shoes. There was no stopping it. [4]

Today, when Blake Mycoskie introduces himself, it’s not as the CEO of his company; he says he’s the Chief

Shoe Giver at TOMS Shoes, reflecting the idea that charity drives the thriving business, not the other way

around.

Is TOMS Shoes Altruistic?

An action is morally right according to the altruist, and to the ethical theory of altruism, if the action’s

consequences are more beneficial than unfavorable for everyone except the person who acts. That means

the actor’s interests aren’t considered: the altruist does whatever can be done so that others will be

happier.

It’s common to imagine the altruist as poverty stricken and self-sacrificing. When you live for everyone

else as the altruist does, it’s no surprise that you can end up in pretty bad shape. You might get lucky and

run into another altruist like yourself, but if you don’t, there’s not going to be anyone particularly

dedicated to your well-being. On the positive side there’s nobility to the idea of dedicating everything to

everyone else, but the plain truth is not many of us would choose to live like Gandhi or Mother Teresa.

It doesn’t have to be that way, though. A suffering life may be an effect of altruism, but it’s not a

requirement. Living for others doesn’t mean you live poorly, only that there’s no guarantee you’ll live well.

You might, however, live well. Blake Mycoskie demonstrates this critical element at the heart of altruism:

it’s not about suffering or sacrificing; it’s about making clear-eyed decisions about the best way to make as

many others as happy as possible. If you happen to live the good life along the way—partying with Maggie

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Grace, Sienna Miller, and friends because that’s the fastest route to publicize the TOMS Shoes

enterprise—that doesn’t count against the project. It doesn’t count in favor either. All that matters, all that

gets tallied up when the question gets asked about whether the altruist did good, is how things ended up

for everyone else.

In the case of TOMS Shoes, the tallying is easy. The relatively wealthy shoe buyers in the United States

come off well; they get cool, politically correct footwear to show friends along with a psychological lift

from knowing they’re helping the less fortunate. On the other side, the rural Argentines obviously benefit

also.

Some Rules of Altruism

Altruism is a consequentialist ethics. Like utilitarianism, no specific acts are prohibited or required; only

outcomes matter. That explains why there aren’t lifestyle requirements for the altruist. Some live stoically

like Gandhi while others like Mycoskie get the high life, but they’re both altruists as long as the goal of

their lives and the reason for their actions is bringing happiness to others. Similarly, the altruist might be

a criminal (Robin Hood) or a liar (see Socrates’ noble lie).

Like the utilitarian, most of the hard questions altruists face concern happiness. They include:

 The happiness definition. Exactly what counts as happiness? In the case of TOMS donating shoes to rural

Argentines, the critical benefit is alleviation of disease and the suffering coming with it. Happiness, in

other words, is defined here as a release from real, physical pain. On the other hand, with respect to the

shoes sold in the States, the happiness is completely different; it’s a vague, good feeling that purchasers

receive knowing their shopping is serving a social cause. How do we define happiness in a way that ropes

in both these distinct experiences?

 Once happiness has been at least loosely defined, another question altruist’s face is the happiness

measure: how do we know which is worth more, the alleviation of suffering from a disease or the warm

happiness of serving a good cause? And even if the answer to that question is clear, how great is the

difference, how can it be measured?

 Another altruism difficulty is happiness foresight. Even if donating shoes helps in the short term, are the

recipients’ lives really going to be happier overall? Conditions are hard in the abandoned regions of the

third world, and alleviation of one problem may just clear the way for another. So TOMS Shoes saves

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poverty-stricken Argentines from suffering a debilitating foot disease, but how much good are you really

doing if you save people only so that they’re free to suffer aching hunger, miserable sickness in places

lacking antibiotics, and hard manual labor because there’s no other work?

Altruism is a variety of selflessness, but it’s not the same thing; people may deny themselves or they may

sacrifice themselves for all kinds of other reasons. For example, a soldier may die in combat, but that’s not

altruism; that’s loyalty: it’s not sacrificing for everyone else but for a particular nation. The same may go

for the political protestor who ends up jailed and forgotten forever. That’s self-sacrifice, but she did it for

the cause and not for all the others. The fireman may lose his life rescuing a victim, but this is because he’s

doing his job, not because he’s decided to live for the sake of others. All altruists, finally, are selfless, but

not all those who sacrifice themselves are altruists.

Personal versus impersonal altruism distinguishes two kinds of altruists: those who practice altruism on

their own and leave everyone else alone and those who believe that everyone should act only to benefit

others and without regard to their own well-being.

The Altruist in Business and the Business That Is Altruistic

TOMS Shoes shows that a business can be mounted to serve the welfare of others. A company aiming to

serve an altruistic purpose doesn’t have to be organized altruistically, however. An individual truly

dedicated to everyone else could start a more traditional company (a real estate firm, for example), work

like a dog, turn massive profits, and in the end, donate everything to charity. It may even be that during

the profit-making phase the altruist CEO is ruthless, exploiting workers and consumers to the maximum.

All that’s fine as long as the general welfare is served in the end when all the suffering is toted up on one

side and the happiness on the other. A business operation that isn’t at all altruistic, in other words, can be

bent in that direction by an altruistic owner.

Going the other way, the business operation itself may be altruistic. For example, this comes from the

College Board’s website, the About Us page: The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association

whose mission is to connect students to college success and opportunity. [5]

That sounds like a good cause. The company doesn’t exist to make money but to implement testing that

matches students with their best-fit colleges. It is, in other words, an altruistic enterprise, and the world,

the argument could be made, is a better place because the College Board exists. But—and this is the

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important distinction—that doesn’t mean everyone who works at the College Board is selfless. Far from it,

the CEO takes home $830,000 a year. That money would buy a lot of shoes for the poverty-stricken in

Argentina. So, there can be altruistic business organizations driven by workers who aren’t altruists.

A church is also a business organization with cash flows, budgets, and red and black ink. The same goes

for Goodwill. Here’s their mission statement: “Goodwill Industries International enhances the dignity and

quality of life of individuals, families and communities by eliminating barriers to opportunity and helping

people in need reach their fullest potential through the power of work.” [6] So, the Salvation Army fits into

the group of altruistic enterprises, of organizations that exist, like the College Board, to do public good.

It’s distinct from the College Board, however, in that a very healthy percentage of those working inside the

organization are themselves altruists—they’re working for the cause, not their own welfare. Think of the

Salvation Army red kettle bell ringers around Christmas time.

Conclusion. Altruism connects with business in three basic ways. There are altruists who use normal,

profit-driven business operations to do well. There are altruistic companies that do good by employing no

altruistic workers. And there are altruistic organizations composed of altruistic individuals.

Advocating and Challenging Ethical Altruism

The arguments for and against an altruistic ethics overlap to a considerable extent with those listed under

utilitarianism. The advantages include:

 Clarity and simplicity. People may disagree about exactly how much good a company like TOMS Shoes

is really doing, but the overall idea that the founder is working so that others can be happier is easy to

grasp.

 Acceptability. The idea of working for others grants an ethical sheen. No matter what you might think of

someone as a person, it’s very difficult to criticize them in ethical terms if they really are dedicating

themselves to the well-being of everyone else.

 Flexibility. Altruists have many ways of executing their beliefs.

The disadvantages of altruism include:

 Uncertainty about the happiness of others. Even if individuals decide to sacrifice their own welfare

for the good of others, how do they know for sure what makes others happy?

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 Shortchanging yourself. Even though altruism doesn’t require that the altruist live a miserable life,

there doesn’t seem to be any clear reason why the altruist shouldn’t get an at least equal claim to

happiness as everyone else (as in a utilitarian approach). Also, some critics suspect that altruism can be a

way of escaping your own life: if you spend all your time volunteering, could it be that deep down you’re

not a good soul so much as just afraid of going out into the competitive world and trying to win a good

place for yourself?

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Altruism defines ethically good as any act that ends up increasing net happiness (or decreasing net

unhappiness) when everything is taken into account except the actor’s increased or diminished happiness.

 Altruism doesn’t require living a miserable life.

 Altruism intersects with the business world in various ways.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Theoretically, could the most devoted altruist in a society also be its richest and happiest member? How?

2. Does Blake Mycoskie have to be an altruist for TOMS Shoes to be considered an altruistic enterprise?

3. Does TOMS Shoes have to be an altruistic enterprise for Mycoskie to be considered an altruist?

4. What are some other motives that may lead someone to live the life of an altruist?

[1] TOMS Shoes, “One for One Movement,” accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.toms.com/our-movement.

[2] TOMS Shoes, accessed May 15, 2011,http://cdn2.tomsshoes.com/images/uploads/2006-oct-vogue.jpg.

[3] Sharon_b, December 14, 2008 (5:24 p.m.), “Blake Mycoskie—he’s handsome, rich and helps children in the

Third World,” Gossip Rocks, accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.gossiprocks.com/forum/news/90958-blakemycoskie-

hes-handsome-rich-helps-children-third-world.html.

[4] Lesley M. M. Blume, “You Are What You Wear,” Huffington Post, July 30, 2008, accessed May 15,

2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lesley-m-m-blume/you-are-what-you-wear_b_65967.html.

[5] “About Us,” College Board accessed May 15, 2011, http://about.collegeboard.org.

[6] “Our Mission,” Goodwill Industries International, Inc., accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.goodwill.org/aboutus/

our-mission.

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3.4 Egoism: Just Me

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define ethical egoism.

2. Show how egoism works in and with business.

3. Consider advantages and drawbacks of egoism.

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Ethical Egoism

Ethical egoism: whatever action serves my self-interest is also the morally right action. What’s good for

me in the sense that it gives me pleasure and happiness is also good in the sense that it’s the morally right

thing to do.

Ethical egoism mirrors altruism: If I’m an altruist, I believe that actions ought to heighten the happiness

of others in the world, and what happens to me is irrelevant. If I’m an egoist, I believe that actions ought

to heighten my happiness, and what happens to others is irrelevant.

Could someone like Blake Mycoskie—someone widely recognized as an altruistic, social-cause hero—

actually is an egoist? Yes. Consider things this way. Here’s a young guy and he’s out looking for money,

celebrity, good parties, and a jaw-dropping girlfriend. It wouldn’t be the first time there was a guy like

that.

Put yourself in his shoes and imagine you’re an ethical egoist: whatever’s good for you is good. Your

situation is pretty clear, your moral responsibility lists what you should be trying to get, and the only

question is how can I get it all?

That’s a tall order. Becoming a rock star would probably work, but there are a lot of people already out

there going for it that way. The same goes for becoming a famous actor. Sports are another possibility;

Mycoskie, in fact, made a run at pro tennis as a younger man, but like most who try, he couldn’t break into

the upper echelon. So there are paths that may work, but they’re hard ones, it’s a real fight for every step

forward.

If you’re smart—and Mycoskie obviously is—then you might look for a way to get what you want that

doesn’t force you to compete so brutally with so many others. Even better, maybe you’ll look for a way that

doesn’t present any competition at all, a brand new path to the wish list. The idea of a celebrity-driven

shoe company that makes a profit but that also makes its founder a star in the eyes of the Hollywood stars

is a pretty good strategy.

Obviously, no one can look deep into Mycoskie’s mind and determine exactly what drove him to found his

enterprise. He may be an altruist or an egoist or something else, but what’s important is to outline how

egoism can actually work in the world. It can work—though of course it doesn’t work this way every time—

just like TOMS Shoes.

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Egoism and Selfishness

When we hear the word egoist, an ugly profile typically comes to mind: self-centered, untrustworthy,

pitiless, and callous with respect to others. Some egoists really are like that, but they don’t have to be that

way. If you’re out to maximize your own happiness in the world, you might find that helping others is the

shortest and fastest path to what you want. This is a very important point. Egoists aren’t against other

people, they’re for themselves, and if helping others work for them, that’s what they’ll do. The case of

TOMS Shoes fits right here. The company improves the lives of many; it raises the level of happiness in

the world. And because it does that, the organization has had tremendous success, and because of that

success, the Blake Mycoskie we’re imagining as an egoist is getting what he wants: money, great parties,

and everyone loving him. In short, sometimes the best way to one’s own happiness is by helping others be

happier.

That’s not always the way it works. Bernie Madoff destroyed families, stole people’s last dimes, and lived

the high life all the way through. For an ethical egoist, the only blemish on his record is that he got caught.

Madoff did get caught, though, and this too needs to be factored into any consideration of egoists and how

they relate to others. Just as egoists may help others because that serves their own interests, so too they

may obey social customs and laws. It’s only important to note that they obey not out of deference to others

or because it’s the morally right thing to do; they play by the rules because it’s the smart thing to do. They

don’t want to end up rotting in jail.

A useful contrast can be drawn in this context between egoism and selfishness. Where egoism means

putting your welfare above others’, selfishness is the refusal to see beyond yourself. Selfishness is the

inability (or unwillingness) to recognize that there are others sharing the world, so it’s the selfish person,

finally, who’s callous and insensitive to the wants and needs of others. For egoists, on the other hand,

because working with others cooperatively can be an excellent way to satisfy their own desires, they may

not be at all selfish; they may be just the opposite.

Enlightened Egoism, Cause Egoism, and the Invisible Hand

Enlightened egoism is the conviction that benefitting others—acting to increase their happiness—can

serve the egoist’s self-interest just as much as the egoist’s acts directly in favor of him or herself. As

opposed to altruism, which claims that it’s our ethical responsibility to serve others, the enlightened

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egoist’s generosity is a rational strategy, not a moral imperative. We don’t help others because we ought

to: we help them because it can make sense when, ultimately, we only want to help ourselves.

One simple and generic manifestation of enlightened egoism is a social contract. For example, I agree not

to steal from you as long as you agree not to steal from me. It’s not that I don’t take your things because I

believe stealing is morally wrong; I leave you alone because it’s a good way to get you to leave me alone.

On a less dramatic level, all of us form mini social contracts all the time. Just think of leading a group of

people through one of those building exits that makes you cross two distinct banks of doors. If you’re first

out, you’ll hold the door for those coming after, but then expect someone to hold the next door for you.

Sure, some people hold the door because it’s good manners or something like that, but for most of us, if no

one else ever held a door open for us, pretty soon we’d stop doing them the favor. It’s a trivial thing, of

course, but in the real world people generally hold doors open for others because they’ve agreed to a social

contract: everyone else does it for me; I’ll do it for them. That’s enlightened egoism, and it frequently

works pretty well.

TOMS Shoes can be understood as a more sophisticated version of the same mentality. It’s hard to discern

exactly what the contract would look like if someone tried to write it down, but it’s not hard to see the

larger notion of enlightened egoism. Shoes are donated to others not because of a moral obligation but

because serving the interests of others helps Blake Mycoskie serve his own. As long as shoe buyers keep

holding up their end of the bargain by buying his product, Mycoskie will continue to help them be

generous and feel good about themselves by donating pairs to people who need them.

Cause egoism is similar to, but also distinct from, enlightened egoism. Enlightened egoism works from the

idea that helping others is a good way of helping me. Cause egoism works from the idea that giving

the appearance of helping others is a promising way to advance my own interests in business. As opposed

to the enlightened egoist who will admit that he is out for himself but happy to benefit others along the

way, the cause egoist claims to be mainly or only interested in benefiting others and then leverages that

good publicity to help him. Stated slightly differently, enlightened egoists respect others while pursuing

their own interests, while cause egoists just fake it.

Adam Smith (1723–90) is known for making a connected point on the level of broad economic trade and

capitalism. In the end, it usually doesn’t matter whether people actually care about the well-being of

others, Smith maintains, because there exists an invisible hand at work in the marketplace. It leads

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individuals who are trying to get rich to enrich their society as well, and that enrichment happens

regardless of whether serving the general welfare was part of the original plan. According to Smith, the

person in business generally

Intends only his own gain, but is led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of

the original intention. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society and

does so more effectively than when he directly intends to promote it. [1]

What’s the invisible hand? It’s the force of marketplace competition, which encourages or even requires

individuals who want to make money to make the lives of others better in the process.

The invisible hand is a central point defenders of egoism in business often make when talking about the

virtues of a me-first ethics. Egoism is good for me, but it frequently ends up being good for everyone else,

too. If that’s right, then even those who believe the utilitarian ideal of the general welfare should guide

business decisions may be forced to concede that we should all just become egoists.

Here’s a quick example. If you open a little takeout pizza shack near campus and your idea is to clear the

maximum amount of money possible to pay your tuition, what kind of business are you going to run?

Does it make sense to take a customer’s twelve dollars and then hand over an oily pie with cheap plastic

cheese and only three pepperonis? No, in the name of pursuing your own happiness, you’re going to try to

charge a bit less than Domino’s and give your customers something slightly better—maybe you’ll spread

richer cheese, or toss on a few extra pepperonis. Regardless, you’re not doing this for the reason an

altruist would; you’re not doing it because you sense an ethical obligation to make others’ lives better. As

an egoist, you don’t care whether your customers are happier or not. But if you want your business to

grow, you better care. And because you’re ethically required to help your business grow in order to make

tuition money and so make yourself happier, you’re going to end up improving the pizza-eating

experience at your school. Better food, less money. Everyone wins. We’re not talking Mother Teresa here,

but if ethical goodness is defined as more happiness for more people, then the pizza place is ethically

good. Further, anybody who wants to start up a successful pizza restaurant is, very likely, going to end up

doing good. If you don’t, if you can’t offer some advantage, then no one’s going to buy your slices.

Going beyond the quality-of-life benefits of businesses in society, Smith leaned toward a second claim

that’s far more controversial. He wrote that the entrepreneur trying to do well actually promotes society’s

well-being more effectively than when directly intending to promote it. This is startling. In essence, it’s

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the claim that for the most dedicated altruist the most effective strategy for life in business is…to act like

an egoist. Within the economic world at least, the best way for someone who cares only about the wellbeing

of others to implement that conviction is to go out and run a successful profit-making enterprise.

Clearly, this is a very powerful argument for defenders of ethical egoism. If it’s true that egoists beat

altruists at their own game (increasing the happiness of everyone else), then egoism wins the debate by

default; we should all become egoists. Unfortunately, it’s impossible to prove this claim one way or the

other. One thing is clear, however: Smith’s implicit criticism of do-gooders can be illustrated. Sometimes

individuals who decide to act for the good of others (instead of seeking profit for themselves) really do end

up making the world a worse place. Dr. Loretta Napoleoni has shown how attempts by Bono of U2 to help

the destitute in Africa have actually brought them more misery. [2] Bono threw a benefit concert and

dedicated the proceeds to Africa are most needy. The intention was good, but the plan wasn’t thought all

the way through and the money ended up getting diverted to warlords who used it to buy guns and bullets.

Still, the fact that some altruistic endeavors actually make things worse doesn’t mean they’re all doomed.

Just as surely as some fail, others succeed.

The same mixed success can be attributed to businesses acting only for their own welfare, only for profit.

If it’s true that the pizza sellers help improve campus life, what about the entrepreneurial honor student

who volunteers to write your term paper for a price? It’s hard to see how a pay-for-grades scheme benefits

students in general, even though the writer may make a tidy profit, and that one student who paid for the

work may come out pretty well.

The invisible hand is the belief that businesses out in the world trying to do well for themselves tend to do

good for others too. It may even be that they do more good than generous altruists. It’s hard to know for

sure, but it can be concluded that there’s a distance between ethical egoism in reality and the image of the

egoist as a ruthless destroyer of broad social happiness.

Some Rules of Egoism

Egoism, like altruism, is a consequentialist ethics: the ends justify the means. If an egoist were at the helm

of TOMS Shoes and he cared only about meeting beautiful people and making huge money, he’d have no

scruples about lying all day long. There’d be no problem with smiling and insisting that the reason TOMS

Shoes exists is to generate charitable shoe donations to the poor. All that matters for the egoist is that the

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lie works, that it serves the goal of making TOMS as attractive and profitable as possible. If it does, then

deviating from the truth becomes the ethically recommendable route to follow.

Personal egoism versus impersonal egoism distinguishes these two views: the personal egoist in the

business world does whatever’s necessary to maximize his or her own happiness. What others do,

however, is considered their business. The impersonal egoist believes everyone should get up in the

morning and do what’s best for themselves and without concern for the welfare of others.

An impersonal egoist may find comfort in the invisible hand argument that the best way for me to do right

with respect to society in general is to get rich. Of course it’s true that there’s something crude in

shameless money grubbing, but when you look at things with rational eyes, it is hard to avoid noticing

that the kinds of advances that make lives better—cars affordably produced on assembly lines; drugs from

Lipitor to Chap Stick; cell phones; spill-proof pens; whatever—often trace back to someone saying, “I want

to make some money for myself.”

Rational egoism versus psychological egoism distinguishes two reasons for being an ethical egoist. The

rational version stands on the idea that egoism makes sense. In the world as it is, and given a choice

between the many ethical orientations available, egoism is the most reasonable. The psychological egoist

believes that, for each of us, putting our own interests in front of everyone else isn’t a choice; it’s a reality.

We’re made that way. Maybe it’s something written into our genes or it’s part of the way our minds are

wired, but regardless, according to the psychological egoist, we all care about ourselves before anyone else

and at their expense if necessary.

Why would I rationally choose to be an egoist? Maybe because I figure that if I don’t look out for myself,

no one will. Or maybe I think almost everyone else is that way, too, so I better play along or I’m going to

get played. (The Mexicans have a pithy phrase of common wisdom for this, “O te chingas, o te chingan,”

which means “either you screw everyone else, or they’ll screw you.”) Maybe I believe that doing well for

myself helps me do well for others too. The list could be drawn out, but the point is that there are

numerous reasons why an intelligent person may accept ethical egoism as the way to go.

As for those who subscribe to the theory of psychological egoism, obviously there’s no end of examples in

business and history to support the idea that no matter how much we may want things to be otherwise,

the plain truth is we’re made to look out for number one. On the other hand, one problem for

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psychological egoists is that there do seem to be examples of people doing things that are irreconcilable

with the idea that we’re all only trying to make ourselves happier:

 Parents sacrificing for children. Any mom or dad who works overtime at some grinding job for cash to pay

their children’s college tuition seems to be breaking the me-first rule. Here, the psychological egoist

responds that, when you really think about it, there may be something there for the parents after all: it

could be the pride in telling friends that their children are getting their degrees.

 Mother Teresa or similar religious-based advocates for the needy. Anyone spending their time and energy

making things better for others, while living painfully modestly, seems like a good candidate to break the

rule of psychological egoism. Here, the psychological egoist responds that perhaps they see a different

reward for themselves than earthly pleasures. They may believe, for example, that their suffering on this

earth will be more than compensated by paradise in heaven.

The Four Relations between Egoism and Business

Structurally, there are four possible relations between ethical egoism and business life:

1. You can have egoists in egoist organizations. This is mercenary capitalism. Individuals do whatever work

is required so long as it benefits them to the maximum. Naturally, this kind of person might find a good

home at a company entirely dedicated to maximizing its own health and success, which can mean one

looking to maximize profits without other considerations. A good example is executives at the

Countrywide mortgage firm. They OK’ed thousands of mortgages to clients who had no way to repay the

money. Then they bundled and sold these mortgages to banks and other financial institutions, making a

quick profit. When the loans later collapsed, those institutions fell into bankruptcy. The Countrywide

executives quickly formed a new company to buy those same loans back at pennies on the dollar, thus

once again turning millions in profits. [3]

2. You can have egoists in nonegoist organizations. Possibly, the CEO of the College Board fits into this

category. His salary of just under a million dollars annually sounds pretty good, especially when you

consider that he gets it working for a nonprofit company that exists to help high school students find the

college best fitted to them. It’s also possible that Blake Mycoskie of TOMS Shoes fits this profile: he lives

an extremely enviable life in the middle of a company set up to help people who almost no one envies.

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3. You can have nonegoists in egoist organizations. Somewhere in the Countrywide mortgage company we

could surely find someone who purchased shoes from TOMS because they wanted to participate in the

project of helping the rural poor in Argentina.

4. You can have nonegoists in nonegoist organizations. Think of the red kettle bell ringers popping up

outside malls around the holiday season.

Advocating and Challenging Ethical Egoism

The arguments for an egoistic ethics include the following:

 Clarity and simplicity. Everybody understands what it means to look out for them first.

 Practicality. Many ethical theories claim to protect our individual interests, but each of us knows

ourselves and our own interest’s best. So doesn’t it make sense that we as individuals take the lead?

Further, with respect to creating happiness for ourselves, there’s no one closer to the action than us. So,

again, doesn’t it make sense that each of us should be assigned that responsibility?

 Sincerity. For those subscribing to psychological egoism, there’s a certain amount of honesty in this

ethics not found in others. If our real motive beneath everything else is to provide for our own happiness

first, then shouldn’t we just recognize and say that? It’s better to be sincere and admit that the reason we

don’t steal is so that others don’t steal from us instead of inventing some other explanations which sound

nice but are ultimately bogus.

 Unintended consequences. In the business world, the concept of the invisible hand allows egoists to

claim that their actions end up actually helping others and may help them more than direct charity or

similar altruistic actions.

 Finally, there’s a broad argument in favor of egoism that concerns dignity. If you’re out in the world being

altruistic, it’s natural to assume that those benefiting from your generosity will be grateful. Sometimes

they’re not, though. Sometimes the people we try to help repay us with spite and resentment. They do

because there’s something condescending about helping others; there’s a message wrapped up in the aid

that those who receive it are incapable of taking care of them and need someone superior to look out for

them. This is especially palpable in the case of panhandlers. If you drop a dollar into their hat, it’s hard to

not also send along the accusation that their existence is base and shameful (you refuse to look them in

the eye; you drop the money and hurry away). To the extent that’s right, an egoism that expects people to

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look out for themselves and spurns charity may actually be the best way to demonstrate respect for others

and to acknowledge their dignity.

Arguments against ethical egoism include the following:

 Egoism isn’t ethics. The reason we have ethics is because there are so many people in the world and in

business who care only about themselves. The entire idea of ethics, the reasoning goes, is to set up some

rules for acting that rescue us from a cruel reality where everyone’s just looking out for number one.

 Egoism ignores blatant wrongs. Stealing candy from a baby—or running a company selling crappy

baby food—strikes most of us as unacceptable, but the rules of egoism dictate that those are

recommendable actions as long as you can be assured that they’ll serve your interests.

 Psychological egoism is not true. The idea that we have no choice but to pursue our own welfare

before anything else is demonstrated to be false millions of times every day; it’s wrong every time

someone makes an anonymous contribution to a cause or goes out of their way to help another without

expecting anything in return.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Egoism defines ethically good as any act that raises the actor’s overall happiness (or decreases

unhappiness) without counting anyone else’s increased or diminished happiness.

 Egoism does not mean ignoring the existence and welfare of others, though they are not necessarily

advocated either.

 Though egoists act in the name of their own happiness, others may benefit.

 Egoism intersects with the business world in various ways.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What’s the difference between egoism and selfishness?

2. In what situation would an egoist decide that a lie is morally wrong?

3. In the real world, is there any way to distinguish an enlightened egoist from a cause egoist?

4. What are some reasons someone may become a rational egoist?

5. What is the invisible hand?

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6. If you were starting a small business, would you prefer that your partner is a utilitarian, an altruist, or an

egoist? Why?

[1] Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London: Strahan and Cadell,

1776), bk. 4, chap. 2.

[2] Can Tran, “Celebrities Raising Funds for Africa End Up Making Things ‘Worse,’” Ground Report, May 14, 2008,

accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.groundreport.com/World/Celebrities-Raising-Funds-For-Africa-End-Up-

Making/2861070.

[3] Eric Lipton, “Ex-Leaders of Countrywide Profit from Bad Loans,” New York Times, March 3, 2009, accessed May

15, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/04/business/04penny.html.

3.5 Case Studies

Cheaters

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Source: Photo courtesy of S. Brusseau.

KDCP is Karen Dillard’s company specialized in preparing students to ace the Scholastic Aptitude Test. At

least some of the paying students received a solid testing-day advantage: besides teaching the typical tips

and pointers, KDCP acquired stolen SAT tests and used them in their training sessions. It’s unclear how

many of the questions that students practiced on subsequently turned up on the SATs they took, but some

certainly did. The company that produces the SAT, the College Board, cried foul and took KDCP to court.

The lawsuit fell into the category of copyright infringement, but the real meat of the claim was that KDCP

helped kids cheat, they got caught, and now they should pay.

The College Board’s case was very strong. After KDCP accepted the cold reality that they were going to get

hammered, they agreed to a settlement offer from the College Board that included this provision: KDCP

would provide $400,000 worth of free SAT prep classes to high schoolers who couldn’t afford to pay the

bill themselves. [1]

QUE STIONS

1. Can you form a quick list of people who’d benefit because of this decision and others who’d end up on the

losing side? Then, considering the situation globally and from a utilitarian perspective, what would need to

be true for the settlement offer to be ethically recommendable?

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2. As for those receiving the course for free—it’s probably safe to assume that their happiness

increases. Something for nothing is good. But what about the students who still have to pay for

the course? Some may be gladdened to hear that more students get the opportunity, but others

will see things differently; they’ll focus on the fact that their parents are working and saving

money to pay for the course, while others get it for nothing. Some of those who paid probably

actually earned the money themselves at some disagreeable, minimum wage McJob. Maybe they

served popcorn in the movie theater to one of those others who later on applied and got a

hardship exemption.

o Starting from this frustration and unhappiness on the part of those who pay full price, can you

form a utilitarian case against the settlement’s free classes?

o From a utilitarian perspective, could the College Board have improved the settlement by adding

the stipulation that the settlement’s terms (and therefore the free classes) not be publicly

disclosed?

o Once word got out, could a utilitarian recommend that the College Board lie or that it release a

statement saying, “No free classes were part of the settlement”?

3. There was talk about canceling the scores of those students who took the SAT after benefitting from the

KDCP classes that offered access to the stolen exam booklets. The students and their parents protested

vigorously, pointing out that they’d simply signed up for test prep, just like students all across the nation.

They knew nothing about the theft and they presumably didn’t know they were practicing on questions

that might actually appear on their exam day. From the perspective of rule utilitarianism, what’s the case

for canceling their scores? From the perspective of act utilitarianism, what’s the case for reinstating the

scores?

4. The College Board CEO makes around $830,000 a year.

o What is a utilitarian case for radically lowering his salary?

o If you were a utilitarian and you had the chance—and you were sure you wouldn’t get caught—

would you steal the money from the guy’s bank account? Why or why not?

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5. It could be that part of what the College Board hoped to gain through this settlement requiring

free classes for the underprivileged was some positive publicity, some burnishing of their image as

the good guys, the socially responsible company, the ones who do the right thing.

o Outline the case for this being an act of an altruistic company.

o Outline the case for this being an act of an egoistic company.

UFC

Source: Photo courtesy of Kaloozer, http://www.flickr.com/photos/kalooz/3942634378/.

Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) got off to a crushing start. In one of the earliest matches, Tank

Abbott, a six-footer weighing 280 pounds, faced John Matua, who was two inches taller and weighed a

whopping four hundred pounds. Their combat styles were as different as their sizes. Abbott called himself

a pit fighter. Matua was an expert in more refined techniques: he’d honed the skills of wrestling and

applying pressure holds. His skill—which was also a noble and ancient Hawaiian tradition—was the

martial art called Kuialua.

The evening went poorly for the artist. Abbott nailed him with two roundhouses before applying a skullcracking

head butt. The match was only seconds old and Matua was down and so knocked out that his

eyes weren’t even closed, just glazed and staring absently at the ceiling. The rest of his body was

convulsing. The referee charged toward the defenseless fighter, but Abbott was closer and slammed an

elbow down on Matua’s pale face. Abbott tried to stand up and ram another, but the referee was now close

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enough to pull him away. As blood spurted everywhere and medics rushed to save the loser, Abbott stood

above Matua and ridiculed him for being fat. [2]

The tape of Abbott’s brutal skills and pitiless attitude shot through the Internet. He became—briefly—

famous and omnipresent, even getting a guest appearance on the goofy, family-friendly sitcom Friends.

A US senator also saw the tape but reacted differently. Calling it barbaric and a human form of

cockfighting, he initiated a crusade to get the UFC banned. Media executives were pressured to not beam

the matches onto public TVs, and doctors were drafted to report that UFC fighters (like professional

boxers) would likely suffer long-term brain damage. In the heat of the offensive, even diehard advocates

agreed the sport might be a bit raw, and the UFC’s original motto—“There are no rules!”—got slightly

modified. Head butting, eye-gouging, and fish-hooking (sticking your finger into an opponent’s orifice and

ripping it open) were banned.

No matter what anyone thinks of UFC, it convincingly demonstrates that blood resembles sex. Both sell

and people like to watch. The proof is that today UFC events are among the most viewed in the world,

among the most profitable, and—this is the one part that hasn’t changed since the gritty beginning—

among the most brutal.

QUE STIONS

1. Two of the common arguments against ultimate fighting—and the two main reasons the US

senator argued to get the events banned—are the following:

o They’re brutal; UFC celebrates violence and hatred and injury, and therefore, it’s immoral.

o Besides the bumps, bruises, and broken bones—which usually heal up—the fighters also suffer

long-term and incurable brain damage. Therefore, the sport is immoral even though it might be

true that in their prime, the fighters make enough money to compensate the physical suffering

endured in the octagon.

How could a utilitarian defend the UFC against these two criticisms?

2. How could the concept of the utilitarian sacrifice apply to John Matua?

3. How would a hedonistic utilitarian’s reaction to UFC differ from an idealistic utilitarian’s reaction? Is there

anything at all in UFC that might convince an idealistic utilitarian to promote the sport as ethically

positive?

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4. How could a proponent of monetized utilitarianism begin portioning up the experiences of Abbott, Matua,

the UFC sponsors, and the spectators in order to construct a mathematical formula (like Ford did with the

Pinto) to decide whether UFC should be banned?

5. Think of UFC as a business, one compared to a biotech company that pioneers cutting-edge, life-saving

drugs. Now, how would a utilitarian decide which one of these two companies was the more ethically

respectable?

6. Why might an altruist sign up to be a UFC fighter? Why might an egoist sign up to be a UFC fighter?

Lottery

Source: Photo courtesy of Alan Levine, http://www.flickr.com/photos/cogdog/81199624.

In her blog Majikthise, Lindsay Beyerstein writes, “State lotteries are often justified on the grounds that

they raise money for social programs, especially those that target the neediest members of society.

However, the poorest members of society tend to spend (and, by design lose) the most on lottery tickets.

Some state lottery proceeds fund programs that benefit everyone, not just the poor. Often state lottery

money is being systematically redistributed upward—from lotto players to suburban schools, for

example.” [3]

QUE STIONS

1. How is the lottery an example of the utilitarian monster?

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2. How can you set yourself up to argue in favor of or against the ethical existence of the lottery in terms of

monetized utilitarianism?

3. Lotteries are about money and about fun—that is, even for the losers, there’s a benefit in the thrill of

watching the numbers turn up. Could the case be made that, from a hedonistic utilitarian standpoint, the

lottery is ethically recommendable because it serves the welfare not only of the winner but also of the

millions of losers?

4. One of Lindsay Beyerstein’s concerns is that the lottery tends to redistribute money from the poor

toward the rich.

o Does a utilitarian necessarily consider this redistribution unethical?

o What kinds of things would a utilitarian have to look into to decide whether the inverse Robin

Hooding is necessarily a bad thing?

5. The lotteries under discussion here are run by states, and Lindsay Beyerstein is not a big fan. She calls

these lotteries “a tax on idiocy” meaning, presumably, that people are just throwing their money away

every time they buy a ticket. Now, one of the arguments in favor of egoism as an ethical stance is that no

one knows what makes each of us happy better than each of us. So, it follows, we should all just try to get

what we want and leave other people alone. How can this view of egoism be fashioned to respond to the

idea that the lottery is a tax on idiocy?

Honest Tea

Source: Photo courtesy of Arnold Gatilao, http://www.flickr.com/photos/arndog/1210077306/.

Seth Goldman founded Honest Tea in 1998. He calls himself the Tea EO (as opposed to CEO) and his

original product was a bottled tea drink with no additives beyond a bit of sugar. Crisp and natural—that

was the product’s main selling point. It wasn’t the only selling point, though. The others aren’t in the

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bottle; they’re in the company making it. Honest Tea is a small enterprise composed of good people. As

the company website relates, “A commitment to social responsibility is central to Honest Tea’s identity

and purpose. The company strives for authenticity, integrity and purity, in our products and in the way we

do business…Honest Tea seeks to create honest relationships with our employees, suppliers, customers

and with the communities in which we do business.” [4]

Buy Honest Tea, the message is, because the people behind it are trustworthy; they are the kind of

entrepreneurs you want to support.

The mission statement also relates that when Honest Tea gives business to suppliers, “we will attempt to

choose the option that better addresses the needs of economically disadvantaged communities.” [5] They’ll

give the business, for example, to the company in a poverty-stricken area because, they figure, those

people really need the jobs. Also, and to round out this socially concerned image, the company promotes

ecological (“sustainability”) concerns and fair trade practices: “Honest Tea is committed to the well-being

of the folks along the value chain who help bring our products to market. We seek out suppliers that

practice sustainable farming and demonstrate respect for individual workers and their families.” [6]

Summing up, Honest Tea provides a natural product, helps the poor, treats people with respect, and saves

the planet. It’s a pretty striking corporate profile.

It’s also a profile that sells. It does because when you hand over your money for one of their bottles, you’re

confident that you’re not fattening the coffers of some money grubbing executive in a New York penthouse

who’d lace drinks with chemicals or anything else that served to raise profits. For many consumers, that’s

good to know.

Honest Tea started selling in Whole Foods and then spread all over, even to the White House fridges

because it’s a presidential favorite. Revenues are zooming up through the dozens of millions. In 2008, the

Coca-Cola Company bought a 40 percent share of Honest Tea for $43 million. It’s a rampantly successful

company.

Featured as part of a series in the Washington Post in 2009, the company’s founder, Seth Goldman, was

asked about his enterprise and his perspective on corporate philanthropy, meaning cash donations to

good causes. Goldman said, “Of course there’s nothing wrong with charity, but the best way for companies

to become good citizens is through the way they operate their business.” Here are two of his examples: [7]

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 Switching from Styrofoam to postconsumer waste might help a packaging company make a more

meaningful contribution to sustainability than a token donation to an environmental nonprofit.

 Investing in a local production facility or even a community bank could help support a local economy

more effectively than a donation to a nearby jobs program.

Organizations in the economic world, Goldman believes, can do the most good by doing good themselves

as opposed to doing well (making money) and then outsourcing their generosity and social responsibility

by donating part of their profits to charities. That may be true, or it may not be, but it’s certain that

Goldman is quite good at making the case. He’s had a lot of practice since he’s outlined his ideas not just

in the Post but in as many papers and magazines as he can find. Honest Tea’s drinks are always featured

prominently in these flattering articles, which are especially complimentary when you consider that

Honest Tea doesn’t have to pay a penny for them.

QUE STIONS

1. Make the case that Seth Goldman founded Honest Tea as an expression of his utilitarian ethics.

o What kinds of people are affected by the Honest Tea organization? Which groups might benefit

from Honest Tea and how? Which groups might not benefit?

o Would this be a hedonistic or idealistic utilitarianism? Why?

o Would it be possible to construe Honest Tea within a framework of monetized utilitarianism?

o Would this be a soft or hard utilitarianism?

2. Make the case that Seth Goldman founded Honest Tea as an expression of his ethical altruism.

o Altruists serve the welfare of others. How does Honest Tea serve people’s welfare?

o What would have to be true about Goldman in terms of his particular abilities and skills for this

enterprise to fall under the heading of altruism?

o Does Goldman sound more like a personal or an impersonal altruist?

3. Make the case that Seth Goldman founded Honest Tea as an expression of his ethical egoism.

o What are some of the benefits Goldman could derive from Honest Tea?

o Before running Honest Tea, Goldman was a big-time mutual fund manager. What kind of benefits

could Honest Tea have offered that he couldn’t find in the world of finance?

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o Does Goldman sound more like a personal or an impersonal egoist?

o In the real world, does it make any difference whether Goldman does enlightened egoism or

cause egoism?

4. In this case study, two kinds of drink manufacturers are contrasted: Honest Tea and the hypothetical drink

company run by some mercenary businessman lacing drinks with bad chemicals to maximize profits.

Looking at this contrast, how could a defender of egoism claim that the best way for healthy drinks to

make their way into the general public’s hands (in the medium and long term, anyway) is for

Goldman and the mercenary businessman and everyone else to all be egoists?

5. Assume that Seth Goldman is a cause egoist, someone faking concern for the general welfare in order to

provide for his own happiness and pleasure. How could the concept of the invisible hand be introduced to

make the claim that Goldman is actually doing more good for the general welfare than he would if he were

a utilitarian or even an altruist?

Your Business

Source: Photo courtesy of Paul Sapiano, http://www.flickr.com/photos/peasap/935756569.

Think about something you do with passion or expertise—a dish you like to cook and eat, a sport you play,

any unique skill or ability you’ve developed—and figure out a way to turn it into a small business. For

example, you like baking cookies, so you open a bake shop, or you like hockey and could imagine an

improved stick to invent and market.

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QUE STIONS

1. If your business is like most others, you’re going to need some money to get it up and going, more money

than you’ve got right now. That means you’ll need to find a partner for your venture, someone to help you

get the cash together and then run things afterward. Would you prefer a utilitarian, an altruist, or an

egoist for your partner? Why?

2. Do you think the invisible hand would be in effect for your business? Just by trying to make money, do you

imagine you’d end up improving people’s lives? If this business works, is it even possible that you’d help

others more than you would by volunteering time for a charity organization? Elaborate.

3. Assume that doing well in society and not just doing well (making money) is important to you.

Within the business you have in mind, with which of these three options do you suspect you’d

accomplish more general good?

o Just making money and trusting the invisible hand to take care of the rest

o Making money and donating part of it to charity—that is, to people specialized in serving the

general welfare

o Attempting to do good within your business by, for example, buying recycled materials or by

paying wages slightly above what people could get for the same work at other companies

4. Is there a potential cause egoism angle to your business? Could you set it up to make it seem like

the reason you’re running your enterprise is to help others when really you’re just trying to make money?

For a consequentialist, is there anything wrong with that?

[1] missypie, April 29, 2008 (2:22 p.m.), “CB-Karen Dillard case settled-no cancelled scores,” College Confidential,

accessed May 15, 2011,http://talk.collegeconfidential.com/parents-forum/501843-cb-karen-dillard-case-settledno-

cancelled-scores.html.

[2] David Plotz, “Fight Clubbed,” Slate, November 17, 1999, accessed May 15,

2011,http://www.slate.com/id/46344.

[3] Lindsay Beyerstein, “Lotteries as Regressive Taxes,” Majikthise (blog), January 23, 2006, accessed May 15,

2011,http://majikthise.typepad.com/majikthise_/2006/01/lotteries_as_re.html.

[4] “Our Mission,” Honest, accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.honesttea.com/mission/about/overview.

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[5] “Our Mission,” Honest, accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.honesttea.com/mission/about/overview.

[6] “Our Mission,” Honest, accessed May 15, 2011,http://www.honesttea.com/mission/about/overview.

[7] “On Leadership: Seth Goldman,” Washington Post, accessed May 15,

2011,http://views.washingtonpost.com/leadership/panelists/2009/11/the-biggest-dollars.html.

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Chapter 4

Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural

Relativism

Chapter Overview

Chapter 4 “Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Relativism” examines some theories guiding

ethical decisions in business. It considers reactions to the possibility that there are no universal

definitions of right and wrong, only different customs that change from one society to another.

4.1 What Is Cultural Relativism?

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

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1. Define cultural relativism.

2. Show how cultural relativism defies traditional ethics.

Nietzsche and the End of Traditional Ethics

“God is dead,” the declaration attributed to Friedrich Nietzsche, stands along with “I think, therefore I

am” (René Descartes, 1641) as philosophy’s most popularized—and parodied—phrases. The t-shirt

proclaiming “Nietzsche is dead, signed, God” is funny, but it doesn’t quite answer what Nietzsche was

saying in the late 1800s. What Nietzsche meant to launch was not only an assault on a certain religion but

also a suspicion of the idea that there’s one source of final justice for all reality. Nietzsche proposed that

different cultures and people each produce their own moral recommendations and prohibitions, and

there’s no way to indisputably prove that one set is simply and universally preferable to another. The

suspicion that there’s no final appeal—and therefore the values and morality practiced by a community

can’t be dismissed as wrong or inferior to those practiced elsewhere—is called cultural relativism.

Example: For most of us, the killing of a newborn would be among the most heinous of immoral acts; a

perpetrator would need to be purely evil or completely mad. The Inuit Eskimos, however, regularly

practiced female infanticide during their prehistory, and it was neither evil nor insane. Their brutal living

conditions required a population imbalance tipped toward hunters (males). Without that gender

selecting, the plain fact was the entire group faced starvation. At another place and time, Bernal

Diaz’s The Conquest of New Spain recounts the Spanish invasion of the Americas and includes multiple

reports of newborns sacrificed in bloody ceremonies that made perfect sense to the locals, but left

Spaniards astonished and appalled. The ethics of infanticide, the point is, differ from one culture and time

to another. Further, these differences seem irreconcilable: it’s extremely difficult to see how we could

convince the Inuit of the past to adopt our morality or how they could convince us to adopt theirs. And if

that’s right, then maybe it no longer makes sense to talk about right and wrong in general terms as though

there’s a set of rules applying to everyone; instead, there are only rights and wrongs as defined within a

specific society.

Finally, if you accept the cultural relativist premise, then you’re rejecting the foundation of traditional

ethics. You’re rejecting the idea that if we think carefully and expertly enough, we’ll be able to formulate

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rules for action that everyone—people in all times, places, and communities—must obey if they want to

consider themselves ethically responsible.

Cultural Relativism in Business Ethics

In the world of international business, Entrepreneur magazine introduces the pitfalls of ethical variation

across cultures with this statement from Steve Veltkamp, president of Biz$hop, an American importexport

business: “Bribery is a common way of doing business in a lot of foreign places.” [1]

If that’s true, then US businesses trying to expand into markets abroad—and competing with local

businesses already established there—are probably going to consider doing what everyone else is doing,

which means getting in on the bribery action. As the Entrepreneur article points out, however, this leads

to a problem: “While bribes are expected in many countries, the United States’ 1977 Foreign Corrupt

Practices Act prohibits payments made with the aim of gaining or maintaining business.”

So American hands are tied. If a construction company is bidding on the contract to build an airport in a

foreign nation, one where the local politicians will be expecting to get their palms greased, they’re at a

distinct disadvantage since they’re not allowed to play by the local rules. Still there is (as there almost

always is) a loophole: “Not all payments are prohibited by the act. Some payments are acceptable if they

don’t violate local laws. Gifts, for instance, to officers working for foreign corporations are legal.”

There’s no bribing, but gifting, apparently, gets a green light. There’s a problem here, too, however: “It can

be difficult to determine the difference between a gift and a bribe in a given situation. ‘If you give a gift to

someone and it leads to a business deal, is that a bribe or a gift?’ asks Veltkamp. ‘In some cultures, giftgiving

is an entrenched part of doing business. If you look at it in a certain sense, maybe it’s a bribe, since

they won’t talk to you until you’ve made that gesture.’”

Now what? Over there, cash changes hands and it’s called an acceptable gift, while those watching from

back here see an illegal bribe.

There are two ways of looking at this dilemma. One is to say, well, this has to be one or the other, either a

gift or a bribe; it has to be either moral or immoral. Given that, we need to take out our traditional tools—

our basic duties, the utilitarian doctrine that we should act to serve the greater good, and so on—and

figure out which it is. Nietzsche went the other way, though. He said that situations like this don’t show

that we need to use ethics to figure out which side is right; instead, the situation shows what moral

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rules really are: just a set of opinions that a group of people share and nothing more. In the United States

we believe it’s wrong to grease palms, and so it is. In some other places they believe it’s honorable to hand

money under the table, and so it is.

If that’s true, then specific convictions of right and wrong in business ethics will never be anything but

cultural fashions, beliefs some community somewhere decides to hold up for a while until they decide to

believe something else. Anything, the reasoning goes, may be morally good or bad in the economic world;

it just depends on where you happen to be, at what time, and who else is around.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Cultural relativism is the suspicion that values and morality are culture specific—they’re just what the

community believes and not the result of universal reason.

 For cultural relativists, because all moral guidelines originate within specific cultures, there’s no way to

dismiss one set of rules as wrong or inferior to those developed in another culture.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Why do you imagine the term cultural relativism was chosen to mean what it does?

2. Do you believe cultures are irreconcilably different? Or is it that deep down people are people and we’re

really all the same? How does this distinction relate to the difference between cultural relativism and

traditional theories of ethics?

[1] Moira Allen, “Here Comes the Bribe,” Entrepreneur, October 2000, accessed May 12,

2011, http://www.entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/2000/october/32636.html.

4.2 Nietzsche’s Eternal Return of the Same

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

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1. Define Nietzsche’s eternal return of the same.

2. Show how the idea of the eternal return provides guidance for professional life.

3. Consider the advantages and a drawback of the eternal return.

Responding to Cultural Relativism by Leaving Common Morality Behind

If, along with cultural relativists, you accept that rules distinguishing right from wrong shift around from

place to place and time to time, it becomes difficult to keep faith in morality. It’s difficult because verdicts

seem flimsy and impermanent, and because this hard question seems inescapable: Why should I go out of

my way to do the right thing today if what counts as the right thing might change tomorrow?

One response to the question is to give up on morality, disrespect the whole idea by labeling all the

customary regulations—don’t lie, don’t steal, strive for the greatest good for the greatest number—a giant

sham. Then you can live without the inhibiting limits of moral codes. You can go beyond any idea of good

and evil and lead an unconstrained life exuberantly celebrating everything you want to do and be.

Wallace Souza: TV Reporter, Politician, and Dealer

Some careers are more vivid and alive than others. TV crime reporting is intense work, especially the

action-type shows where the reporter races to the scene, interviews witnesses, and tracks down shady

characters. Politics is another throbbing life; the adrenalin of crime chasing isn’t there, but you get the

brimming confidence and energy that comes with power, with deciding what others can and can’t do.

Drug dealing excites too, in its way, with thrilling danger and the pleasures of fast money. People, finally,

who want to live exuberantly, who prefer risk to caution and find it easy to say things like “you only go

around once” are probably going to find something attractive in these lines of work and may opt for one or

another.

Then there’s Wallace Souza. He opted for all three. At the same time. The most visible of his roles—TV

reporter—also yielded the most visible success. His program aired from the Brazilian state of Amazonas, a

jungley place far from cosmopolitan São Paulo and touristy Rio de Janeiro. Known as a haven for cocaine

cartels, and as a training ground for revolutionary militants charging into neighboring Columbia and

Venezuela, it’s a natural spot to bring cameras and look for dramatic action. A number of reporters were

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stationed in the region, but none seemed so uncannily skilled at reaching scenes first and getting video

over the airwaves than Mr. Souza. In fact, on occasion, he even reached scenes before the police.

The dogged TV reporting, along with Souza’s editorializing complaints about the region’s jaded criminals,

made him a popular hero and sealed his bid for a seat in the local congress. He didn’t allow his state

capital work to interfere with his TV role, however. Actually, the two jobs fit together well: one day he was

reporting on the deplorable free-for-all in the jungle and the next he was in the capital meeting with highranking

police officers, reviewing their strategies and proposing laws to fix things.

The perfect image began to crack, though, when it was revealed that the reason Souza so frequently

reached the best crime scenes first is that he was paying hit men to assassinate local drug dealers. He

wasn’t, it turned out, just the first to know about the crimes, he knew even before they happened. In an

especially brazen move, during one of his last TV programs, he put up pictures of several notorious

criminals and asked his viewers to phone in and votes on which one they’d like to see killed.

At this point, Souza seemed like an overzealous crusader: he was drawing vivid attention to the crime

plague and doing something about it with his hit men. You could doubt his methods, but his dedication to

his community’s welfare seemed noble—until it was revealed that he was actually also a major drug

dealer. And the criminals getting killed and shown on his program weren’t just random outlaws; they were

Souza’s drug-trade competitors. [1]

What Is the Eternal Return of the Same?

One report on Souza’s exploits included the suggestion that his willingness to cross every moral line—to

lie, traffic drugs, order killings, whatever—fit him for the title of the Antichrist. [2]

That title, as it turns out, was one Nietzsche enjoyed assigning to himself. It’s definitely also a fit for Souza

in the sense that he seemed to live without shame, fear, or regard for good and evil. What’s notable about

Souza’s business ventures is that they pay no heed to the very idea of morals. It’s not that they skirt some

rules or follow some guidelines while disobeying others; it’s not like he’s trying to get away with

something—it’s much more like morality doesn’t exist. Now, bringing this back to Nietzsche, who shared

the sentiments, the question Nietzsche asked himself was, if morality really is canceled, then what? How

should we live? The answer was a thought experiment called the eternal return of the same.

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Imagine, Nietzsche proposed, that every decision you make and everything you feel, say, and do will have

to be repeated forever—that is, at the end of your life, you die and are immediately reborn right back in

the same year and place where everything started the time before, and you do it all again in exactly the

same way. Existence becomes an infinite loop. With that disturbing idea established, Nietzsche converted

it into a proposal for life: we should always act as though the eternal return were real. Do, Nietzsche says,

what you would if you had to live with the choice over and over again forever. The eternal return, finally,

gives us a reason to do one thing and not another: it guides us in a world without morals.

How Does the Eternal Return Work?

Start with the eternal return as it could be applied to an altruist, to someone dedicating life to helping

others. One way to do altruism would be by working for a nonprofit international organization that goes

to poverty-wrecked places like Amazonas and helps coca farmers (the coca leaf is the base for cocaine)

shift their farms to less socially damaging crops. This would be difficult work. You might figure on doing it

though, getting through it, and feeling like you’ve done some good in the world. But would you do it

infinitely? Would you be willing to suffer through that existence once and again forever? Remember, the

world would never get better; every time you’d just go back to being born on earth just the way it was

before. Obviously, people can make their own decisions, but it seems fairly likely that under the condition

of the eternal return there’d be fewer people dedicating themselves—and sacrificing their own comfort

and interests—to social well-being.

What about some other lines of work? Would there be fewer snowplow operators, long-haul pilots,

teachers willing to work in troubled schools? What kind of professional lives, Nietzsche forces us to ask,

would be too hellish, bothersome, or exhausting to be repeated forever? Those lives, whatever they are,

get filtered by the eternal return; they get removed from consideration.

If certain careers and aspirations are out, then what’s in? What kind of existence in the economic world

does the eternal return recommend? One possibility is Wallace Souza. The question is, why

would his career trajectory fit the eternal return?

The job of a reporter is fast and dramatic, the kind of thing many imagine themselves doing if they weren’t

tied down by other commitments. People with children frequently feel an obligation to get into a safe and

conservative line of work, one producing a steady paycheck. Others feel a responsibility toward their aged

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parents and a corresponding obligation to not stray too far just in case something goes wrong. So trekking

off into the Brazilian jungle in search of drug operations may well be exciting—most of us would probably

concede that—but it’d be irreconcilable with many family responsibilities. One thing the eternal return

does, however, is seriously increase the burden of those responsibilities. When you sacrifice something

you want to do because of a sense of obligation, you may be able to swallow the loss once, but Nietzsche is

demanding that you take it down over and over again. Family responsibilities may count, but at what

point do you say “enough”? Can anyone oblige you to sacrifice doing what you really want forever?

Taking the next step into Souza’s amoral but dramatic career, assuming you do decide to become a crime

reporter, and you’re inside the eternal return where everything will recur infinitely, then aren’t you going

to go about making your reporting work as exciting and successful as possible? Probably, yes. So why not

hire some hit men to fire things up a bit? Normally, of course, our moral compass tells us that killing

others to get ahead isn’t really an option. But with all morality canceled, it becomes an option, one just

like any other. Be a banker, be a reporter, be a killer, there’s no real difference. Just choose the one you’d

most like to do repeatedly without end.

Souza also chose to be a drug dealer. Again, this is one of those jobs many would find exciting and

satisfying. Thrills and easy money are attractive; that’s part of the reason Hollywood produces so many

films about traffickers and their lives. Most of us wouldn’t actually do something like that, though, at least

partially because dealing drugs feels morally wrong. But inside the eternal return, that shame factor falls

away; when it does, the number of people entering this field of work might well increase.

It’s critical to note that Nietzsche’s eternal return is not the idea that you should go off and be a crimereporting,

hit man–hiring drug dealer. Instead, Souza’s life just exemplifies one thing that could happen

in the world of your career if you accept Nietzsche’s proposal of living beyond any traditional moral limit.

Regardless, what the eternal return definitely does do is force you to make decisions about your

professional life in very different terms than those presented by traditional ethical theories. There’s no

consideration of sweeping duties; there’s just you and a simple decision: the life you choose now will be

repeated forever, so which will yours be?

What’s the Reward of Morality?

One of the strengths of Nietzsche’s idea is that it forces a very important question: Why should I want to

be morally responsible? Why should a salesman be honest when lying could win her a healthy

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commission? Why should a factory owner worry about pollution spewing from his plant when he lives in a

city five hundred miles away? Now, a full elaboration of this question would be handled in an airy

philosophy class, not an applied course in business ethics. Nietzsche, however, allows a taste of the

discussion by puncturing one of the basic motivations many feel for being virtuous: the conviction

that there’ll be a reward later for doing the right thing today.

The certainty of this reward is a critical element of many religious beliefs: when you die, there’ll be a final

judgment and you’ll enjoy heaven or suffer punishment at the other extreme, depending on how you

behaved on earth. A similar logic underwrites Hinduism’s concept of reincarnation: the life you are born

into next will be determined by the way you live now. This discussion could be drawn out in more

directions, but no matter what, Nietzsche spoils the idea that you take the moral high road because you’ll

be repaid for it later. Within the eternal return, there is no later; all that ever happens is exactly the same

thing again.

Advantages and a Drawback of the Eternal Return

One advantage of the eternal return is that it adds gravity to life. Forcing you to accept every decision you

make as one you’ll repeat forever is compelling you to take those decisions seriously, to think them

through. Another connected advantage of the eternal return is that it forces you to make your own

decisions. By getting rid of all guidelines proposed by ethics, and by making your reality the one that will

repeat forever, Nietzsche forces you to be whom you are.

The disadvantage of the eternal return is Wallace Souza. If everyone is just out there being themselves,

how are we going to live together? How can we make peaceful and harmonious societies when all anyone

ever thinks about is what’s best for themselves forever?

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 The eternal return is a thought experiment in which you imagine that the life you choose will repeat

forever.

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 According to the eternal return, when faced with a dilemma in the business world—what career should I

choose, should I kill (or maybe just lie or cheat) to get ahead?—you should imagine living the decision over

and over again forever.

 The eternal return maximizes individuality but does little to help individuals live together in a community.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. In your own words, what is the eternal return?

2. Why might the eternal return be considered a reasonable response to cultural relativism?

3. Write down some factors leading to a significant decision you’ve made. It could be about choosing a field

of study or a career path. Now, can you walk through each of the factors within the eternal return? Are

there any decisions you made that you’d take back and change?

4. If you knew the eternal return was true, could you still make the reasonable decision to choose an

altruistic profession? Why or why not?

[1] Dom Phillips, “Brazil Crime Show Host ‘Used Murder to Boost Ratings,’” Times, August 13, 2009, accessed May

12, 2011,http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6793072.ece.

[2] Danny Gallagher, “Brazilian Crime Show Host Kills for Ratings?,” TV Squad, August 14, 2009, accessed May 12,

2011, http://www.tvsquad.com/2009/08/14/brazilian-crime-show-host-kills-for-ratings.

4.3 Cultural Ethics

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

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1. Define cultural ethics.

2. Consider how cultural ethics works in the business world.

3. Examine the truth of cultural ethics.

4. Consider advantages and drawbacks of a culturist’s ethics.

What Is Cultural Ethics?

Culturists embrace the idea that moral doctrines are just the rules a community believes, and they accept

that there’s no way to prove one society’s values better than another. Culturists don’t, however, follow

Nietzsche in taking that as a reason to turn away from all traditional moral regulation; instead, it’s a

reason to accept and endorse whichever guidelines are currently in effect wherever you happen to be. The

old adage, “when in Rome, do as the Romans do,” isn’t too far from where we’re at here.

Gift or Bribe or Both?

The Entrepreneur magazine article posed a problem for Americans going overseas to do business. In

some places, passing money under the table is necessary to spark negotiations and win contracts.

However, bribery is illegal in the United States, and US law makes it illegal for Americans to do that kind

of thing abroad. Gifts, on the other hand, are allowed. But, according to the Entrepreneur article, it can be

difficult to determine the difference between a gift and a bribe. In some cultures, a gesture may be seen as

a gift, and in others it looks like a bribe.

Looking at this uncertainty, what a culturist sees is not ambiguity about whether handing the money over

to a potential client is a legal gift or an illegal bribe. That’s not it at all. A culturist sees it as both a gift and

a bribe. In one culture—a nation overseas where the payment is occurring and where similar payments

always occur when business is getting done—there are no moral qualms. It’s right to give a cash gift

because that’s the rule of the country; it’s the way things are commonly and properly done there. By

contrast, from the perspective of American business culture, the conclusion that’s drawn with equal force

is that it’s an immoral bribe because that’s what US customs and normal practices tell us.

Cultural Ethics and International Bribery

Culturists see moral rules as fixed onto specific societies, but that doesn’t help anyone know what to do

when confronted with an unfamiliar set of beliefs. How, the really important question is, does a

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culturist act when forced to make decisions in a place and among people whose beliefs are different and

unfamiliar? The Entrepreneur interview with Steve Veltkamp provides one answer.

What can you do if your overseas associate demands a bribe? Veltkamp doesn’t recommend

asking embassies or consulates for assistance, as “they have to stick to the official line.” Instead,

he believes “the best resource in almost every country of the world is the U.S. Chamber of

Commerce, where you can find Americans who live in the country and understand how things

are done.” [1]

Immediately you can see how different the culturist approach is to moral dilemmas. The message is: get in

touch with the locals and try to do as they would in the same situation.

Most traditional ethical theories go in exactly the opposite direction. They say that it doesn’t necessarily

matter what people are actually doing. Stronger, the entire point of studying ethics has normally been

to escape conventional wisdom and ingrained habits; the idea of doing what we ought to do requires a

step away from those things and a cold, rational look at the situation. So, a morality based on duties sets

up guidelines including don’t lie, don’t steal and appeals to men and women in business to follow them.

Acting in an ethically responsible way in the world means obeying the dictates and refusing to be swayed

by what the guy in the next cubicle is up to. Handing someone money under the table, consequently, while

publicly insisting that everything’s on the up and up can’t be condoned no matter what anyone else does;

it can’t be right because it entails at least implicit lying.

More specifically for the culturist, Entrepreneur advises overseas business people to avoid seeking

guidance from embassies or consulates because those people have to stick to “the official line.” What’s the

official line? Presumably, it’s the set of practices delineated and approved by the State Department back in

Washington, DC. The strength of these practices is that they’re formed to be universal, to work at every

embassy everywhere in the world. A culturist, however, looks at that and says it’s silly. There are no

practices that work everywhere in the world. The advice government bureaucrats give is worthless; it’s

less than worthless because it departs from the error of conceiving ethics as a set of rules fitting a

transnational reality. What people in business should actually do is get in contact with people who really

know something about ethics, and that requires turning to the locals, including the chamber of commerce,

because they’re on the scene.

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Conclusion. The culturist deals with the question about whether a bribe is ethically respectable by

ignoring all dictates received from other places and obeying the customs and standard practices of those

who live and work where the decision is being made.

Cultural Ethics and the News Reporting of Wallace Souza

Another example of how culturist ethics works comes from the flamboyant TV reporter Wallace Souza.

Like many action crime reporters the world over, he raced to violent scenes hoping to get the first and best

video. What counts, however, as good video in Brazil is different from what typically gets shown in the

United States. Here’s a description of what Souza sent over the airwaves: “In one of Mr. Souza’s shows on

his Canal Livre programme, a reporter approached a still-smoldering body in a forest. ‘It smells like a

barbecue,’ he says. ‘It is a man. It has the smell of burning meat. The impression is that it was in the early

hours…it was an execution.’” [2]

This is not the kind of report we see in the US media, and one of the differences is the ethics. Typically in

the United States, a certain respect is accorded to the deceased, even if they’re criminals. It’s considered

an exploitation to directly show dead bodies, especially smoldering ones. There’s quite a bit of cultural

analysis that would go into this prohibition, but simplifying, it’s not just that reporters hold an ethical

responsibility to others to not exploit their deaths graphically; they also have a responsibility to viewers to

not show images that may be (or probably would be) disturbing. By contrast, and as the Souza report

shows, in Brazil the rules are different and this kind of visual makes it over the airwaves without raising

eyebrows or triggering moral objections.

More generally, the question about what you’re allowed to show on TV to boost the ratings and so make

more money is an extremely rich area of examples for cultural ethics. How graphic is the violence allowed

to be on CSI Miami? How far is the wardrobe malfunction allowed to go on the Real Housewives of

Orange County? These kinds of basic questions about decency and ratings (which means advertising

revenue) seem tailor made for those who believe the answers don’t depend on anything more than what

people in a certain culture will accept. They seem cut out for those believing that the value we call decency

is nothing more (or less) than the line drawn between the number of people who will watch and the

number who turn the TV off in disgust.

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Is Culturalist Ethics True?

If it’s true that there’s no ethics but the kind a culturalist proposes, then this book loses a good deal of its

usefulness. It’s lost because the main object is to help readers form and justify rules to guide their

professional lives. Conceding that the culturalists are right, however, is also admitting that there’s no

reason to carefully analyze problems: you’re far better served just checking around to see what most other

people are doing in similar situations. Ethics isn’t a test of your ability to think reasonably and

independently; it’s more a responsibility to follow the crowd.

Culturalism isn’t true, however, at least not necessarily. You can see that in the reasoning underneath the

cultural approach. The reasoning starts with an observation:

In certain societies, handing money under the table is commonly considered an appropriate,

ethically respectable part of business activity, and in others it’s considered both illegal and

unethical.

And moves quickly to a conclusion:

Right and wrong in the business world is nothing more than what’s commonly considered right

and wrong in a specific community.

On the surface, this argument looks all right, but thinking it through carefully leads to the conclusion that

it’s not valid. A valid argument is one where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. For

example, if you start from the definition that all unmarried men are bachelors, and then you observe that

your friend John is an unmarried man, you can, in fact, conclude that he’s a bachelor. You must conclude

that. But that’s not the situation with the culturalist argument because the conclusion doesn’t necessarily

follow from the premise. Just because no broad international agreement has been reached about what

counts as bribery doesn’t mean no agreement will ever be reached. Or making the same point more

generally, just because no trans-cultural theory based on universal reason has yet to conquer all local

beliefs and habits everywhere on the globe doesn’t mean no such theory will ever accomplish that goal.

Taking the same situation in the less ambiguous world of the physical sciences, there was a time when

some believed the earth centered the sun and planets, while others believed the sun was at the center, but

that didn’t mean the dispute would linger forever. Eventually, tools were found to convince everyone that

one side was right. So too in business ethics: one day an enterprising ethicist may find a way to

indisputably prove on the grounds of a universal and reasonable argument that greasing palms is a bribe

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and not a gift, and it’s immoral, not moral. We don’t know if that will happen, but it might. Consequently,

the fact that we’re unsure now as to whether any single ethics can deal with the whole world doesn’t

require shooting to the other extreme and saying there’ll never be anything but what people in specific

nations believe and that’s it. The culturalist argument, in other words, isn’t necessarily persuasive.

It is worrisome, though. And until someone can find a way to do for ethics what scientists did for the

question about the earth’s relation to the planets, there will always be individuals who suspect that no

such proof will ever come. Count Nietzsche among them. In the field of contemporary philosophy and

ethics, those who share the suspicion—those who doubt that no matter how hard we try we’ll never be able

to get beyond our basic cultural perspectives and disagreements—belong to a movement

named postmodernism.

What Are Some Advantages and Drawbacks of Culturalist Ethics?

One general advantage of a culturalist ethics is that it allows people to be respectful of others and their

culture. A deep component of any society’s existence, uniqueness, and dignity in the world is its signature

moral beliefs, what the people find right and wrong. A culturalist takes that identity seriously and makes

no attempt to change or interfere. More, a culturalist explicitly acknowledges that there’s no way to

compare one culture against another as better and worse. Though you can describe differences, you can’t

say one set of moral truths is better than another because all moral truths are nothing more than what a

society chooses to believe.

A more specific advantage of a culturalist ethics in the economic and business world is that it adapts well

to contemporary reality. Over the last decades we’ve seen an explosion of international commerce, of large

corporations tearing loose from specific nations and functioning globally. This economic surge has

outpaced the corresponding understanding surge: we have no trouble switching dollars for euros or for

yen, and we can buy Heineken beer from Germany and ride in a Honda made in Japan, but few of us

speak English, German, and Japanese. In that kind of situation, one where some dilemmas in business

ethics end up involving people we can’t really talk to, culturalism provides a reasonable way to manage

uncertainties. When we’re in the United States, we follow American customs. If we’re sent on an overseas

trade venture to Germany or Japan, we pretty much do as they normally do there. Just in practical terms,

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that may well be the easiest way to work and succeed in the world, and a

culturalist ethics allows a

coherent justification for the strategy.

The Disadvantages

The major disadvantage of a culturalist ethics is that it doesn’t leave any clear path to making things

better. If a community’s recommended ethical compass is just their customs and normal practices, then

it’s difficult to see how certain ingrained habits—say business bribery—can be picked up, examined, and

then rejected as unethical. In fact, there’s no reason why bribery should be examined at all. Since moral

right and wrong is just what the locals do, it makes no sense to try to change anything.

This view stands in stark contrast with what we usually believe—or at least would like to believe—about

ethics: there can be progress; we can become better. In science, we know progress occurs all the time. Our

collective knowledge about the sun’s position relative to the planets went from wrong to right with time

and effort, and we’d like the same to happen for moral uncertainties. That’s why it’s so easy to imagine

that bribery is a dirty, third-world practice, and part of our responsibility as a wealthy and developed

nation is to lead the way in cleaning it up. We clean the moral world of bad business ethics just like our

scientists rid the physical world of misperceptions. More, that’s a central aim of America’s anti-bribery

legislation as it applies to overseas acts: it’s to cure other cultures of their bad habits. If you’re a

culturalist, however, then the bad habit isn’t bribery; it’s one nation trying to impose a morality on

another.

However you may come down on the question about whether nations should be trying to improve ethical

customs in other places, what’s inescapable is that if you’re a culturalist, you don’t have any ground to

stand on when it comes to criticizing the moral practices of businessmen and women in foreign countries.

You don’t because what’s going on elsewhere is an independent and legitimate ethical system and can’t be

judged inferior to our own.

Another problem with a culturalist ethics is that it provides few routes to resolving conflicts within a

society. For example, should I be allowed to go into business for myself on the land I bought in the middle

of a residential neighborhood by opening a motorcycle bar? In Houston, the answer’s yes. There’s a

community consensus there that owning a piece of land allows you to do (almost) whatever you want with

it. In legal terms, that translates into Houston being the only major American city without zoning

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regulations. Up the road in Dallas, however, there’s a similar community consensus that the rights of

landownership are curtailed by the rights of nearby landowners. The result is strict zoning laws likely

prohibiting Harley conventions in the middle of family neighborhoods. At this point, a culturalist has no

problem; people in Houston have their codes of right and wrong and people in Dallas have theirs. What

happens, though, in Austin, Texas, which is about midway between Houston and Dallas? What if about

half the population believes in landowner rights at all costs and the other half goes for a more communityoriented

approach? A cultural ethics provides few tools for resolving the dispute beyond sitting and

waiting for one side or the other to take control of the town. This means ethics isn’t helping us solve

disagreements; it only arrives when, really, it’s no longer needed.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Proponents of cultural ethics embrace the idea that moral doctrines are just the rules, beliefs, and

customs of specific communities.

 Doing the right thing within a culturalist framework relies less on traditional ethical reasoning and more on

detecting local habits.

 The culturalist view of ethics is neither true nor false. It’s a reaction to the world as it is: a place with vastly

divergent sets of moral codes.

 A culturalist ethics respects other societies and their practices but loses solid hope for ethical progress.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. If you’re doing business overseas as a cultural ethicist, why would it make sense to consult the local

chamber of commerce? Who else might you consult for moral guidance? Why?

2. You go abroad to win a contract and discover that a cash gift is necessary, so you hand it over and win the

business. On returning to the United States, you put the $200 gift on your expense report. The boss is

infuriated, calls your act an “unethical, wrongheaded bribe” and says she won’t reimburse you the $200.

What arguments could you use to convince her that you did the right thing and should be reimbursed?

3. Souza’s bloody TV program is popular in Brazil, especially the parts where he shows video of horridly dead

bodies. How could a culturalist argue that the episodes should not be shown on American TV?

4. A cultural ethics is neither true nor false. Explain.

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[1] Moira Allen, “Here Comes the Bribe,” Entrepreneur, October 2000, accessed May 12,

2011, http://www.entrepreneur.com/magazine/entrepreneur/2000/october/32636.html.

[2] Dom Phillips, “Brazil Crime Show Host ‘Used Murder to Boost Ratings,’” Times, August 13, 2009, accessed May

12, 2011,http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6793072.ece.

4.4 Virtue Theory

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

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1. Define virtue ethics.

2. Elaborate basic virtues and show how they work in business.

3. Indicate how virtue is acquired.

4. Note an advantage and drawback of the theory.

What Is Virtue Ethics?

Contemporary virtue ethics is an updated version of a theory first proposed in ancient Greece. Today’s

proponents acknowledge that it’s very difficult to set up a list of moral rules that are going to solve ethical

dilemmas across cultural lines. Typically, they don’t go quite so far as the culturalists; they don’t believe

that basic regulations of right and wrong are completely independent from one community to another. In

practical terms, however, there’s agreement that the world is too diverse and changing to be controlled by

lists of recommendations and prohibitions. So proponents of virtue suggest that we change the focus of

our moral investigations. Instead of trying to form specific rules for everyone to follow—don’t bribe, don’t

exploit the deceased on TV—they propose that we build virtuous character. The idea is that people

who are good will do the good and right thing, regardless of the circumstances: whether they’re at home

or abroad, whether they’re trying to win new clients or making a decision about what kind of images are

appropriate for public TV.

In a vague sense, we all know what it means to have a virtuous character; we all know people who can be

counted upon to do the right thing. Think of a business situation where true character shines through. A

local TV station has seen advertising revenue plummet and layoffs have to be made. Who should go?

Should Jim get to stay because his wife just had their first child? Should Jane get to stay because she’s

fifty-seven and probably won’t be able to find another job? Should John—who’s a tireless worker and the

station’s best film editor—be laid off because he was hired only two months ago? It’s a hard choice and

there’s no way to know for sure what’s right. It is certain, however, that there are better and worse ways of

handling the situation.

One strategy is to not think too much about it, to just know that two employees have to go, so you take the

names that happen to come to mind, you send them an e-mail, and you instruct security to make sure

they’re escorted from the building. Then you go hide in the bathroom until they’re gone. In other words,

you weasel out. In the same situation, another person will draw up criteria for making the decision and

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will stand up and inform those who are being let go why the decision was made. The thoughts

(complaints, regrets, excuses) of those being released will be honored and heard attentively, but the

decision will stand. From the person in charge of deciding, there’ll be honesty, respect, and firmness. This

is virtue. You can’t read it in a book, you can’t memorize principles, and you can’t just follow some

precooked decision-making process. You have to have certain qualities as a person to do the right thing in

a hard situation.

Virtue ethics is the idea that we can and should instill those qualities in people and then let them go out

into the complex business world confident that they’ll face dilemmas well. What decisions will they make?

What will they do when faced with questions about who should be laid off or, in another case, whether to

hand over a bribe in a place where everyone is bribing? We don’t know. But we rely on their good

character to be confident they’ll do right.

Under this conception, these are the primary tasks of ethics:

 Delineate what the virtues are.

 Provide experience using the virtues.

The experience is especially important because virtue isn’t so much a natural characteristic like height or

hair color; it’s more of an acquired skill: something you need to work at, practice, and hone. Also, like

many acquired skills, doing it—once a certain level of mastery has been reached—is rewarding or

satisfying. Typically, a person driven by virtue has nurtured a moral instinct for acting in consonance with

the virtues. Doing right feels right. Conversely, not acting in consonance with the virtues is discomforting;

it leaves a bad taste in the mouth. At the risk of trivializing the subject, there’s a very limited comparison

that can be made between learning virtue and learning more rudimentary activities like golf or dancing.

When someone has acquired the skill, hitting a good shot or taking the right steps in perfect time feels

good. Conversely, missing a putt or stepping on your partner’s foot leaves you consternated.

What Are the Virtues and Vices?

Every advocate of virtue ethics will present a constellation of virtues that they believe captures the essence

of what needs to be acquired to be virtuous. Typically, there’ll also be a set of anti-virtues or vices to be

avoided to fill out the picture. Here’s a set of virtues overlapping with what most proponents will offer:

 Wisdom (both theoretical and practical)

 Fairness

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 Courage

 Temperance

 Prudence

 Sincerity

 Civility

On the outer edges, here’s a common pair of vices to be avoided. Notice that what counts as a vice here

isn’t synonymous with the common use of the word, which implies a weakness of the physical body

manifested as the inability to resist drunkenness, drugs, and similar:

 Cowardice

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nsensibility

How Do the Virtues and Vices Work in a Business Environment?

Wisdom as a virtue is frequently divided into theoretical and practical variations. Theoretical wisdom is

what you get reading books and hearing college lectures. It’s the acquired ability to concentrate and

understand sentences like the one you’re reading now, even though it’s not very exciting and allows

almost no cheap thrills—words like sex and drugs don’t come up much. Those possessing theoretical

wisdom know the scholarly rules of the world in the abstract but not necessarily in practice. In the world

of business, for example, someone may be able to explain the fine points of Immanuel Kant’s complicated

and dense ethical ideas, but that doesn’t mean they’ll be able to apply the lessons when sitting in

someone’s office in a foreign country.

Practical wisdom (sometimes called prudence) is the learned ability to take a deep breath and respond to

situations thoughtfully. For example, everyone feels like exploding sometimes, especially at work after

you’ve had too much coffee and you didn’t get the raise you wanted. After that, some guy in a meeting

takes a cheap shot and jokes about how you didn’t win an overseas account because you didn’t bribe the

right person. What do you do? Scream the guy’s head off? Talk about it quietly after the meeting? Let it

pass like nothing happened? Practical wisdom doesn’t give an answer, but in the heat of the moment, it’s

the virtue of making the decision coolly, of doing something you won’t regret later. Frequently, an

association is set between practical wisdom and finding a spot between extremes. In this case, perhaps it

would be excessive to go off right there in the meeting room (because the outburst would tend to confirm

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that you’re not real smart), but it might also be excessive to let the jab go as though nothing had happened

(because the same guy may feel emboldened to keep poking at you). So practical wisdom would be the

ability to navigate a middle, prudent, route—perhaps one leading to the decision to discuss the matter

quietly but sternly after the meeting.

Fairness is the virtue of judging people’s acts dispassionately, evenhandedly, and from all points of view.

When forming judgments about a potential client who seems to be asking for a bribe, the verdict is going

to partially depend on where the client is. If he’s in the United States, that’s one thing; if he’s in a country

where clients customarily get cash under the table, that’s another. No one is saying the first is wrong and

the second right, but the different contexts need to be considered, and fairness is the ability to consider

them, to make evenhanded judgments even in very different situations.

Courage is the virtue of moderate boldness. If you’re an action crime reporter, you won’t hide in a bush

while pushing your cameraman out into the open to try to get some exciting footage. You won’t, in other

words, be a coward. At the same time, you won’t be rash either, you’ll know that sometimes you need to

take a risk to get a good story, but it doesn’t make a lot of sense to stand up and film from the middle of a

gunfight.

Temperance is the virtue of self-control with respect to pleasure, especially the pleasures of the body and

the senses. Curiously, Wallace Souza stands as an embodiment of this skill. As a major league drug dealer,

he no doubt had constant access to good, cheap, feel-good substances. Even so, he managed to control his

intake, not letting it interfere with his day job as a TV reporter, and his other day job as a legislator.

More generally in the workplace, temperance mixes well with the learned ability to delay gratification. For

example, doing good work is frequently rewarded with a better job, but it’s hard to find someone who feels

as though they get everything they deserve every time. Temperance enters here as the ability to bear down

and keep trying. It’s also, on the other side, the ability to know when a larger change (perhaps looking for

work at another company) may be necessary to get ahead.

Sincerity is the ability to reveal yourself to others with confidence that you’ll be respected. It fits between

the extremes of frigidity and emoting. Souza or any TV reporter has to do more than just give cold facts;

some human, emotional component must be added to the mix. On the other hand, no one’s going to watch

a reporter who arrives at a crime scene, reports that he feels sad, and breaks down in tears. Similarly in

international business negotiations, to establish good contact across cultures, there has to be some

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sharing of humanity. You need to reveal what kind of food you like or something similar to the people on

the other side. You don’t want to go too far, though, and talk about how Japanese food reminds you of a

childhood vomiting episode (especially when doing business in Tokyo).

Civility is the virtue of showing consideration for others without humiliating yourself. As a virtue it

doesn’t mean eating with the right fork or remembering to say “thank you” to clients. Instead, it’s the

disposition to show others that you take them seriously while also respecting yourself. This means

establishing ground rules for behavior that are independent and neutral. In essence, the idea is, when

having lunch with your boss, you don’t eat like you’re sitting in front of the TV in your family room; you

respect her, and you expect the same from her. Civility is the virtue of habitually being and expressing

yourself in a way that establishes your presence solidly without threatening or impinging on others.

Vices

On the outside of the virtues, there are vices. Just as the accomplishment of a virtue—acting in harmony

with it—yields a sense of satisfaction and confidence that you’re living well, living a good life, so too the

vices produce a sensation of unease. It’s not exactly a sting of conscience (like a child feels when caught

stealing); it’s more a sense of weakness, deflation, and failure. Cowardice, for example, is a vice. It may

save your job if you mess up and don’t confess to the problem being your fault; but for the person trained

in virtue, the job will have lost its dignity. Insensibility is another vice. Had Souza understood that, he

may have thought twice about those people’s dead bodies he rolled out for television. He may have

thought of their living parents, their children. And even if he hadn’t, after he’d presented the images he

would’ve felt that he’d lapsed, that he hadn’t done as well as he could.

How Do I Become Virtuous?

Virtues aren’t a list of actions you can write on the back of your hand and refer to; they’re ways of living,

and the only route to becoming virtuous is to actually live those ways. Every society will have its own

institutions for instilling virtue, and within societies different institutions will seem more apt for some

than for others. In the United States, the kinds of groups that are sought out as instillers of virtue include

the family, churches, schools, sports teams, Boy and Girl Scouts, volunteer and community organizations,

the armed forces, AmeriCorps, and similar.

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Companies play a role, too. The virtuous organization will be led by individuals who are virtuous, and it

will reward workers—at least partially—based on their progress toward being good people. This kind of

organization won’t rely on employee handbooks and compliance rules to dictate behavior; instead, it will

devise strategies for nurturing the skills of a good life. They may include mentor programs, carefully

calibrated increases in responsibility and independence for employees, and job performance assessments

that not only measure numerical results but also try to gauge an individual’s moral contributions to the

organization’s undertaking.

Finally, when confronted with moral questions—“What kind of images should I broadcast on my TV

report?” or “Should I hand money under the table?”—the answer won’t be yes or no. It’s never a yes or no;

it’s always to do what my good character dictates.

An Advantage and Drawback of Virtue Ethics

The principal advantage of virtue ethics is its flexibility, the confidence that those who are virtuous will be

equipped to manage unforeseeable moral dilemmas in unfamiliar circumstances. The principal drawback

is the lack of specificity: the theory doesn’t allow clear, yes-or-no responses to specific problems like

whether I should offer a bribe.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Virtue ethics concentrates on forming good character and then trusting people to do the right thing. At the

heart of ethics, the formation of good character replaces the defining of specific guidelines for action.

 A society’s institutions play a key role in instilling virtue.

 The basic virtues tend to stress moderation, the ability to avoid taking extreme action in the face of

dilemmas.

 Virtue ethics grants flexibility insofar as those who are virtuous should manage any situation well.

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REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Would you call Souza’s colorful professional life a profile of the virtue of courage? Why or why not?

2. How might the virtue of civility come forward in the case of international bribery, in the case that you’ve

gone abroad in pursuit of a contract and the prospective client demands some cash under the table?

3. What are some societal institutions you’ve come in contact with that could be understood as teaching

virtue? What virtue(s) do they instill, and how?

4.5 Discourse Ethics

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define discourse ethics.

2. Show how discourse ethics can function in a business context.

3. Note an advantage and drawbacks to the theory.

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What Is Discourse Ethics?

Proponents of discourse ethics reverse the order in which we normally address ethical uncertainties.

Instead of starting with one theory or another and then taking it out into the world to solve problems, they

start with a problem and try to create a moral structure to solve it. Ethical solutions become ad hoc,

custom generated to resolve specific conflicts. It doesn’t matter so much, therefore, that people come to an

issue like bribery from divergent moral terrains because that difference is erased by the key element of

discourse ethics: a foundational decision to cut away from old ideas and make new ones.

How Does Discourse Ethics Work?

When a dilemma is faced, those involved gather and try to talk it out. The discussion is constrained by two

basic limits: conversation must be reasonable and civil, and the goal is a peaceful and consensual

resolution. As long as these ideals control what we say, we can call the result ethically respectable.

Take the dilemma of international bribery: you’ve left your home office in New Jersey and gone to

Somalia seeking to win construction business on a new airport. As the recent Transparency

International Corruption Perception Index shows, [1] you’re going to discover that its customary to pass

some cash to a prospective client before he’ll be willing to do serious business. Company policy, however,

prohibits bribes.

What do you do? If you’re playing by hometown, American rules, your responsibility to company policy

and to broad honesty and fairness requires you to walk away. But if you’re playing Somali rules where

greasing a palm seems fair and acceptable, your obligation to win contracts for the company that’s paying

your salary requires you to pass some cash. Discourse ethics comes in here with this: instead of trying to

impose one side’s convictions on the other, the effort will be to overcome the divide by constructing a new

and encompassing moral framework through common agreement. American rules and Somali rules are

both thrown out, and new ones get sought. Here are steps on the way:

1. Define the immediate stakeholders—that is, those who’re most affected by the dilemma and may be

gathered to resolve it. In this case, they include you and your client. Since your responsibilities to the

company are reported through your supervisor, she too could be included.

2. Establish a language for discussion. In the international world this is actually a real problem. Sensibilities

must be respected, and if you’re in Somalia, just assuming that everyone will speak English might be a

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step backward. On the other hand, you probably don’t speak Somali. This step then becomes a rehearsal

for the larger problem—just as you’re separated by moral codes, so too you’re separated by languages—

and you’re going to have to find a solution. You may choose a third language, you may hire an interpreter,

or maybe your client will be able to speak English. In any case, an agreement must be reached.

3. Establish the goal, which in discourse ethics is always the peaceful and consensual resolution to the

dilemma.

4. Define the problem. Here, it’s that when cash passes from you to the client, you feel like you’re handing

over an illegitimate bribe, but he feels like he’s receiving a typical and acceptable gift. This stage of the

process would require fairly lengthy elaborations by all those involved of exactly what they understand

their obligations and interests to be. Your supervisor would need to explain the company policy, why it

exists and how she’s responsible for upholding it. Your client might point out that his salary is quite low,

and the reason for that is simple: everyone accepts that his income will be supplemented by gifts. (Here,

he might sound something like a waitress in New York City explaining to a foreign diner that her salary is

absurdly small, but everyone expects there’ll be some tipping, and it’ll be more than two shiny quarters.)

You, finally, explain how you’re being stretched between two obligations: the one to respect company

policy and the other to do the job of winning contracts.

5. Propose solutions. Discourse ethics is open, a kind of ethical brainstorming: those involved offer

solutions, modify each other’s’ proposals, and try to discern whether a common ground can be mapped. In

this case, someone may propose that the prospective client offer substantial evidence that money is

expected and customary for someone in his position in Somalia. If the evidence can be produced, if it

shows that payments are nearly universal, and it shows about how much they normally are, then perhaps

all parties can be satisfied. Your supervisor, seeing that the amount actually forms part of a normal salary

and isn’t some extraordinary payment, may be able to reason that the money isn’t a bribe because it’s not

doing what bribes typically do, which is afford an unfair advantage. In this case, if everyone’s paying, then

no advantage will be had. It’s important to note here that the logic isn’t if everyone does it then it’s all

right, because discourse ethics doesn’t generalize like that. All conversations and solutions are about

getting agreement on this one case. So your supervisor feels like handing cash over isn’t a bribe any more

than tipping a waitress is. Your client, having received the money, will obviously be satisfied. You, finally,

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will be free to fulfill your professional obligation to win the client without sacrificing your obligation to

respect company policy and your obligation to yourself to work in a way that’s honest.

If this—or any—solution is reached, then discourse ethics will have done what it promised: open a way for

concerned parties to reach agreements alleviating conflicts. Whatever the agreement is, it’s an ethically

recommendable solution because the definition of what’s ethically recommendable is just agreements

reached through discussion.

existence in the suburb,

about two hundred people were struck by moving vehicles, and twenty were killed. From the

perspective of the ethics of care, can these numbers be used to form an argument against this

policy and in favor of a return to the previous, corrupted reality?

Money for Nothing

Source: Photo courtesy of Richard Riley, http://www.flickr.com/photos/rileyroxx/2969244149/.

In his blog the z spot, author Z raises two questions about people receiving unemployment paychecks.

Both are laced with suspicion of fraud. First, people who are collecting unemployment checks are required

to show they’re at least trying to get a job, but Z writes that some are “showing up for interviews in jeans

and t-shirts.” Then he asks, “Do these people really want the job, or are they just showing up to say that

they are actively seeking work?” [7]

He goes from there to a second critical point. “Some people,” Z says, “are collecting unemployment checks

even though they’re actually working.” What they do is turn in their unemployment form listing the days

they worked, and those are deducted from the check they receive. That sounds OK in the abstract, but, he

adds, “The problem is that these people who are ‘on call’ are not taking shifts that are offered to them.

Those shifts don’t get deducted from their unemployment. So, while there are people who are actually

unemployed, struggling and looking to find work, there are Union employees sitting at home deciding

when they do and don’t want to come in. And collecting unemployment.”

From the posting’s response section, here are two contributions:

1. It’s not easy for me to swallow that my taxes are supporting people who could be working.

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2. I have a question. I live in Wisconsin and I know of somebody who is collecting unemployment but is not

actually going to any job interviews or is even applying for jobs. Is this illegal? If so, how can I report this

without them knowing?

QUE STIONS

1. If you were using the eternal return to chart your way through life, would you have any problem “sitting at

home deciding when you do and don’t want to come in while collecting unemployment”? If you’re all right

with that, how would you respond to the complaint from the response section that someone is paying

taxes to support your lifestyle?

2. Thinking about the people showing up for job interviews in jeans and t-shirts, what might be lacking in

their character according to a virtue ethicist? If the government is one of those institutions proponents of

virtue look to for the instillation of good character, what might the government do in this situation in the

name of encouraging virtue?

3. The second cited response to Z is a question about how an unemployment cheat can be reported

“without them knowing.”

o About this silent reporting, why is this not what a proponent of discourse ethics would

recommend?

o How could the five-step process of discourse ethics be applied to the situation? Would the guy

complaining about paying taxes be included in the discussion? What kind of proposals might be

voiced to rectify the situation?

4. Starting from the ethics of care, is there a situation you could imagine that would justify the actions of

workers who take some shifts but decline others, and collect unemployment for those declined hours?

A Single Parent in the Army

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Source: Photo courtesy of US Army Africa, http://www.flickr.com/photos/usarmyafrica/4034104565/.

The post of cook in the mess hall is probably one of the Army’s least dangerous assignments, the closest

you get to actual battle is a food fight, but it’s still a military job where you go and do what your orders

command. For Specialist Alexis Hutchinson, a twenty-one-year-old Army cook, that meant catching a

flight to Afghanistan. She missed hers, though, intentionally. She regretted abandoning her unit, but felt

she had no choice. The single mother of a ten-month-old, she says she couldn’t find anyone to care for her

child during the absence; the only potential help, her mother, was already overwhelmed by caring for

three other relatives with health problems. Hutchinson’s fear, according to her lawyer, was that if she

showed up at the airport, the Army “would send her to Afghanistan and put her son with child protective

services.”

For its part, a military spokesman says, “the Army would not deploy a single parent who had nobody to

care for a child.”

The situation is under review, but for the present, just like anyone else who refuses deployment, she’s

under military arrest on her base in Georgia. [8]

QUE STIONS

1. Virtue ethics

o The military is cited by virtue ethicists as a potential character-building institution, one of the

places a society molds a good citizenry. What are some of the virtues the military could be

expected to instill? How are those reflected in this situation?

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o Families are a cited source of virtue. What values should we expect family life to instill? How are

those virtues reflected in this situation?

o Is there any way to bring the military virtues and the family virtues together for Hutchinson? If so,

what might it be? If not, why not and what should she do?

2. Proponents of discourse ethics walk through a five-step process on the way to reaching a negotiated

settlement to moral conflicts. What might the five steps look like here?

3. One of the objections to discourse ethics is that it can set up a slippery slope—that is, the people involved

can form a solution that bends the rules a little bit, and next someone else wants a little flexibility too, and

then someone wants a little more, and before long, the rules have completely disappeared and everyone’s

doing whatever they want. Could you sketch out how this process could happen here, with the end result

being the Army more or less losing the values at the core of its existence?

4. Ethics of care

o One of the key elements composing an ethics of care and distinguishing it from traditional ethical

theories is this: At the center of attention, independent actors are replaced by a web of

interrelated individuals. Ethics, in other words, isn’t about me and you, it’s about us. In

Hutchinson’s case, she finds herself in the midst of at least two networks of “us,” two

communities of people to whom she owes an allegiance and care. Describe these communities

and the links binding them.

o Another of the key elements composing an ethics of care and distinguishing it from traditional

ethical theories is this: The impartial application of abstract principles is replaced by the

maintenance and harmonizing of human relationships. Ethics, in other words, is less about the fair

imposition of rules and more about crafting social integration. Can you find an example of this

conflict between an ethics of rules on one side, and an ethics of relationships on the other, in

Hutchinson’s situation?

o Another of the key elements composing an ethics of care and distinguishing it from traditional

ethical theories is this: Tensions between the rights of individuals get replaced by conflicts of

responsibility to others in established relationships. Ethical tensions, in other words, aren’t my

rights versus yours, it’s me torn between those I care for. In the case of Hutchinson, how is she

torn?

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o In general, do you believe there’s a place for an ethics of care in the military? If so, where? If not,

why not?

[1] “Tamica Tanksley, SCT ’00,” Temple University, accessed May 12,

2011,http://www.myowlspace.com/s/705/index.aspx?sid=705&gid=1&pgid=1021&cid=1612&ecid=

1612&ciid=3725&crid=0.

[2] Business Ethics Workshop video, accessed May 12,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_4/Mordida%20in%20the% 20booklet.html.

[3] Business Ethics Workshop video, accessed May 12,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_4/How_to_purchase_a_police_ officer.html.

[4] Business Ethics Workshop video, accessed May 12,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_4/Quick_mordida.html.

[5] Alejandro Almazán, “Fin de la mordida,” El Universal, November 16, 2003, accessed May 12,

2011, http://www2.eluniversal.com.mx/pls/impreso/noticia.html?id_nota= 54910&tabla=ciudad.

[6] Business Ethics Workshop video, accessed May 12,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_4/Mordida%20in%20the% 20booklet.html.

[7] Business Ethics Workshop, accessed May 12,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_4/Unemployment_fraud.html.

[8] “Mother Refuses Deployment,” New York Times, November 16, 2009, accessed May 12,

2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/us/17soldier.html.

Chapter 5

Employee’s Ethics: What’s the Right Job for Me?

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Chapter Overview

Chapter 5 “Employee’s Ethics: What’s the Right Job for Me?” examines some ethical decisions facing

employees. It considers the values that underlie and guide choices about the kind of work you choose to

pursue.

5.1 Finding Jobs to Want

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Delineate ethical dilemmas and considerations in job seeking.

2. Discuss how values guide the search for a job.

3. Define job sequencing.

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What Kind of Work Is Out There?

A question posed on a web discussion board: What Is Your Nightmare Job? Here are some answers:

 Lung gunner (in a poultry processing plant: ram a nozzle down the chopped neck of a chicken and suck

out the lungs)

 Roofer (Miami, summertime)

 Urinalysis monitor (watch guys pee for eight hours, making sure no one’s switching their own for some

friends who hasn’t been using drugs)

 Toll booth operator (apparently evil drivers heat quarters with cigarette lighters and drop them into the

hands of unsuspecting operators) [1]

That last part about hot coins may be urban legend, but no matter what, there are jobs on the list that are

going to make you cringe.

The Wall Street Journal has a similar list, but theirs includes both a top and bottom twenty—the best and

worst jobs you can try to get or struggle to avoid.[2] Here are a few from one group:

 Child-care worker

 Lumberjack

 Butcher

 Seaman

 Nuclear decontamination tech

 Nurse

 Firefighter

And a few from the other group:

 Actuary

 Parole officer

 Accountant

 Medical laboratory technician

 Paralegal assistant

 Meteorologist

 Historian

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Can you tell which jobs belong in the twenty best and which are among the twenty worst? You might have

a fix on the answer, but probably there’s one or two on each list that don’t seem to fit. That’s because once

you get away from the extremes—the horribly bad and enviously good jobs—it’s difficult to define exactly

what counts as good work.

Let’s take a look at two jobs: child-care worker and actuary. It’s probably true that no one really likes

changing diapers at the day care center, and certainly it’s smellier and dirtier than being an actuary, which

is a statistical job. Actuaries take a calculator and reams of data and try to figure out how old people are

likely to be when they die. This is important information for companies selling life insurance since they’ve

got to make sure their clients live long enough—and pay long enough—to more than cover the lump sum

that gets doled out at the end. Now there’s a fair amount of money at stake here, and that’s why good

actuaries get paid big money. The money is one reason being an actuary gets ranked as one of the best

jobs by the Wall Street Journal. So the actuary advantages are the money, it’s not stinky work, and also

it’s worth noting that there’s not much stress since no one will know for sure whether your calculations

are right or wrong for decades. Add it all up and you’ve got a potentially desirable job and career path, the

kind you may want to put at the center of your working life.

Still, is it really better than a bottom-twenty job as a day care worker? If you do go the day care route, it’s

true that you’ve got to wash your hands constantly, but the rest of the day, being with excited children,

helping them take their first steps, recite the alphabet, and learn how to play with one another, that must

be worth something; there must be a human, emotional reward in it. Undeniably, when you punch out

from the day care center on Friday night you won’t have as much money to spend as your friend whose

charting future death rates, but it’s also true that when you come back on Monday you’ll be engaged with

young lives instead of death. You’ll be human for the day instead of a calculator.

On the other hand, no one likes poop under the fingernails. It’s hard to get away from that.

Finally, what’s really curious about that first list taken from the Internet discussion board is that for

almost all of them, there’s some lone voice speaking up in favor in the comments part of the web page. A

toll booth operator, for example, wrote in to say that he likes his job because there’s no boss staring over

his shoulder. And roads don’t go out of business, so he doesn’t have to worry too much about corporate

downsizing or economic recessions. Nearly every job, it seems, looks OK to someone. Even in the worlds

of lung gunners and urinalysis monitors, there are people who are decently happy with what they’re doing.

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Why Is a Career Decision Ethical Instead of Just a Personal Decision about Jobs?

Normally we think of ethics as providing guidelines for how to treat other people—don’t steal, don’t lie.

But ethics is also about how we treat ourselves and the responsibilities we have to ourselves. One of the

deepest of the responsibilities is making thoughtful and independent decisions about what’s worth doing

and what isn’t. Narrowing this to economic reality, the most tangible choice you’re going to have to make

is where am I going to go to work when I wake up in the morning? This decision—choosing a job and a

career path—is about value. Every time the alarm goes off, you affirm what definitely matters in your life

and what’s really not so important.

These value judgments are rehearsed in comparing the so-called bottom-twenty job in the day care center

with the so-called top-twenty job of an actuary. There are big advantages to being an actuary: money and

relatively fixed hours (no parents get stuck in traffic and leave you with a screeching three-year-old until

8:00 p.m.). But day care also has advantages: you work in a life-affirming profession while reaping the

human reward of helping children learn.

It’s true that on paper being an actuary probably looks better. But life doesn’t happen on paper. That’s

why, every day, people make the decision to go work at the day care center, despite everything. Or to be a

teacher at an inner-city junior high school. Or to be a lumberjack because the opportunity to work

outdoors outweighs the sore muscles. The possibilities are nearly endless.

In the end, you’re the only one who can decide what to do when the alarm goes off, and you have an

ethical responsibility to yourself to make the best decision you can.

Seven Values for Ranking Jobs

To start thinking about jobs in terms of the values they respond to, these questions are pivotal. For me,

how important is it that my work

1. is meaningful,

2. allows leisure time,

3. accumulates money,

4. bestows power,

5. radiates prestige,

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6. is comfortable,

7. provides security?

The question about meaningful work is the hardest to cleanly answer. Even defining exactly what counts

as “meaningful” isn’t easy. Definitely, its work that holds significance for you or the larger community

apart from how much you’re paid, how big your office is, how long your vacations stretch. Still, it’s

difficult to pin down exactly what counts as a meaningful job. Unlike money, which you can just add up,

meaning is more like a color: hard to describe, changes a bit depending on the light and people tend to

have their own palettes of good and bad.

On her blog, Kendra Kinnison writes that she “believes her purpose in life is to use her ability to discover

connections and present them in an innovative way to support the creation and building of healthy

businesses and to inspire others to accept Jesus Christ and to discover and utilize their gifts.” [3]

She’s got it down. There’s nothing about salary or how many employees she has working underneath her.

She does want to be in business; it’s not like her religion has led her off to be a missionary. But at the same

time she wants to work on her terms and within her priorities. Probably, there are career slots where she

wouldn’t fit too well (imagine her trying to help others and spread her faith while working at a used car

dealership), but maybe starting up a local day care center would suit her ideals. True, the Wall Street

Journal tells us that are a bad job, but it doesn’t sound like it would be a bad one for her.

Look at the Greenpeace recruitment page: http://greenpeace.org/international/about/jobs. Their job

openings read like anti-ads, like they’re trying to discourage your application. There are some uplifting

parts about “challenging work,” but nothing about the potential for huge, year-end bonuses, or rapid

advancement, or generous health insurance, or comfortable working conditions. In all those terms,

working for Greenpeace sounds pretty bleak. Which is part of the reason it’s so clear that this is a job for

people who want meaning in their professional lives, a purpose separate from their own comfort, and one

involving the environment?

Not all meaningful work has to be based on faith or tied to internationally known advocacy organizations.

Chances are there’s a woman not too far from where you live who’s in the music business at the grassroots

level: she offers piano lessons. Knock on her door and ask why she does it year after year; she may say she

believes in music, its beauty, and its contribution to what she considers a full life. Your college athletic

director might say something similar about sports. Or go to the nearest farmer’s market—you won’t find a

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lot of money changing hands; it’s definitely not big business, but you’ll probably run into someone eager

to discuss the virtues of organic food in terms that sound more like a crusade than a menu choice.

Actually, organic food is big business. Beyond seeds in the fields and the scattered crates of the farmers’

market, there’s a growing, and growingly profitable business in the massification of the organic. Anyone

walking through the local Whole Foods will see a lot of the color green. What won’t be seen—but what’s

definitely up above—is an impressive corporate structure with big-salary managers making million-dollar

stocking decisions every day. As far as money goes, they’re doing well for themselves—like any

multibillion-dollar corporation, Whole Foods pays its leading executives big money. [4] But hunched over a

desk and tapping on a keypad, hasn’t their work been bleached of the meaning and devotion that abides

with the vegan wearing dirty overalls and trying to sell strawberries in an empty parking lot Saturday

mornings? Maybe. Or maybe not. Meaningful work doesn’t require that the only jobs you’ll accept are low

paying.

More jobs and kinds of work could be added here, but whatever you believe in, you should be able to find

some employment that lets you approach it. As for how close you can get to truly meaningful work that

will probably depend to some extent on trade-offs, on how much you’re willing to give up in terms of

leisure time, job security, and other comforts. Regardless, the real key is that meaningful work sets a

specific purpose before everything else. With respect to lining up a career path, you don’t start with a list

of jobs and then find one that suits your interests; it’s the opposite: you start with your deep interest and

then find a job that lets you pursue it.

Finally, two cautionary points: While it’s true that people devoted to meaningful work frequently sacrifice

money, leisure time, and job security, the logic doesn’t work the other way. Most of the time, low pay,

short vacations, and a constant threat of unemployment don’t mean you’ve chosen a noble career; they

just mean you’ve got a crappy job.

And on the other side, there are the holy grails out there. Probably, some higher-ups at Whole Foods got

into the line of work because they find the promotion of organic food meaningful, and they ended up with

enviable salaries as well (in other words, they’re in it for the organic cause more than the money, but

they’re happy to get the money). In a different direction, Michael Jordan loved basketball and also ended

up getting paid handsomely to play. The photographer Annie Leibovitz loves and is dedicated to

photography, but she’s not making many sacrifices to do it: traveling to exotic places, living well, and

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meeting interesting people. Former vice president Al Gore believes in saving the planet as much as any

sweating deckhand on the Greenpeace boat; the difference is he wrote a book about it that sold millions of

copies and made him millions of dollars.

Conclusion about meaningful work: dedicating your professional life to a cause or activity that you believe

in doesn’t mean low wages and long hours. A lot of times it does, but that’s not the point.

Another question shaping job seeking is leisure time. How important is it? In a sense, this is the mirror

image of meaningful work. If you believe in something like promoting organic food, playing basketball,

taking pictures, saving the planet, or even watching game shows on TV, it’s perfectly reasonable to find a

job in some other field that provides the income you need in the fewest hours possible and then lets you

get out and do what you really want with the rest of your time. More or less, what you say here is I’m just

going to X out that part of my life where I’m working. In the extreme case, the attitude is, “I don’t care

how bad it is, I just want to get through it.”

The Discovery Channel series The Deadliest Catch about crab fishing in the Arctic shows how cold, smelly,

and ugly work can be; but a few months of it and you get a year’s worth of wages and the free time to

spend it. One important concept here is instrumentalism, which means that work becomes an

instrument—a tool allowing you to get or do something else.

The third question about jobs and values involves money. Like sacrificing hours of work to get leisure,

punching the clock to accumulate cash makes your job an instrument. Money is also the easiest way to

organize your professional life. You can count it; if one job pays more than another, its better.

But this easiness can also be a trap. For anyone just out of college and facing a hazy and unclear world

where all the decisions seem so difficult, it’s easy to get tempted by the smoothest route: just check the

possibilities out there and go for whatever pays the most. At least that way you know you’re not messing

things up completely. So there’s something to be said for going that safe route, but this also needs to get

underlined. From the perspective of your responsibilities to yourself, the better-paying job is only the

better job if you’ve already made the decision to value career options in terms of how much they pay.

There’s nothing necessarily wrong with that decision. Of course the Hollywood movies and the Habitat for

Humanity volunteers hanging around campus looking for recruits are all going to tell you that you’ve got

to follow your heart, do meaningful work, and contribute to society. And if you face them up and flat out

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say you’re just in it for the money, there are always going to be whispers about greed and accusations like

being a sellout.

In defense of money, though, dedicating your career to getting it makes a lot of sense, and it can do a lot of

good, too:

 If you’ve got student loans, it’s good to be able to pay them back, as it’s the fulfillment of a duty to fidelity.

 If you do feel a need to support causes like protecting the planet, most advocacy organizations will be

happy to receive a cash donation. The truth is, they’d probably rather have the money than a few

volunteer hours.

 Making money means participating in an economy that’s getting richer, and doesn’t that end up making

life better for everyone? Faced with Habitat for Humanity volunteers who ask you to join them in building

shelter for the needy, couldn’t you even make the case that contributing to an economy that functions well

actually helps people more—at least in the long run—by producing jobs so they can purchase their own

home instead of relying on volunteers to build one?

 You may have children. Clothes are expensive. Summer camp is expensive. The holidays are expensive.

True, little ones might still be a long way off, but when they come, a new set of responsibilities arrive, too,

and just about the only way you can begin preparing for them now is by making sure that, on the money

side at least, the house is in order.

There’s more to this list, but when it comes to choosing a job with an eye on the salary factor, it’s

important to spend some time with this question: Why is it, exactly, that money has value for me?

If you’re looking for power, you could do a lot worse than being a judge. True, you spend your days

listening to lame excuses for shoplifting and the bogus assurances of repentance from drug dealers, but

with the pound of a (little wooden) hammer, you get a police officer to rumble over and haul people off to

jail. In court, even someone mouthing off is enough to slap them with contempt and assign them to a few

hours of lockup.

The military, politics, policing: all these fields will appeal to anyone who sets the possession of power as

one of the most valuable aspects of a job. Less directly, people in the news media can decide which issues

center popular attention by mentioning them on the radio broadcast, the TV news show, or the current

affairs blog. That’s serious influence, shaping what people are thinking and talking about in our shared

world.

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Obviously, bosses in most fields of work have power. Usually they like to say that they have

“responsibilities,” but frequently part of holding the responsibility to carry out a project is having the

ability to hire and fire the people participating. Advertising is also about power. It’s not as explicit as the

ability to get someone hauled off to jail or sent to the unemployment line, but masters of the craft can get

people to believe that they really need some electronic device that they didn’t even know existed thirty

seconds ago. There’s power in schools, too. If you’re in this class as a distribution requirement, that means

someone has decided for you what you’re supposed to know.

The bottom line is that power—and the various jobs that grant it—exist in many places, and some are

more transparent holders of force than others. So one of the keys to understanding power as a career

option is being sensitive to the different ways it works. Commanding a platoon of soldiers fits the bill, but

so does sending out an army of TV commercials.

Even more than money, power is vilified as a career goal. If you tell your friends that all you care about is

money, they might think you’re greedy, but they’ll probably keep in touch over the years, figuring you

could invite them to your Hamptons beach house for a great weekend. If you tell everyone that all you care

about is power, though, they’ll probably think you’re weird and drop you off their Facebook friends list.

The image we get from popular culture of a power-hungry careerist is a drooling madman with clenched

fists, too much caffeine, and maybe a copy of Machiavelli’s The Prince on the nightstand. And it’s not just

the movies. Deborah Gruenfeld, a professor in the Stanford Graduate School of Business and expert in the

psychology of power in the workplace believes: “Those in positions of power can be observed to act in a

manner that is peculiar and that often has no connection to reality.” [5]

Ouch.

There must be something there, though. If power were really so bad, we wouldn’t have to worry about it

since no one would want it. But people do want it; it’s just that hardly anyone wants to admit it.

In a sense, prestige is the opposite of power. Almost everyone says they’d love a job granting prestige, but

not many are willing to give up much for it. Going all the way back to the Wall Street Journal article,

“historian” is on the top-twenty list of desirable jobs, and “philosopher” is there, too, on the longer, uncut

version of the story. Salary isn’t the reason they’re included among the twenty best, and there’s not much

direct power to those jobs either. (Despite what you think, professors don’t get any rush out of failing

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people. Only rarely, anyway.) There is job security if you’re a tenured university professor, but the main

benefit of a prestigious job is the “wow” factor:

“What do you do for a living?”

“I’m a historian.”

“Wow.”

After a few minutes in which everyone in the conversation acknowledges that this is very interesting, the

talk switches back to more normal topics. Later on, people quietly wonder why anyone would choose to

spend more or less his or her entire life in school. That doesn’t detract from the prestige of the career

path, though.

Being a doctor is prestigious, and (even if we hate to admit it) being a lawyer is, too, although it’s also true

that part of the prestige accrues from the fact that you know people who have these jobs probably have

some money too.

The Paul Teutuls (father and son), along with Mikey Teutul, hold prestige jobs at Orange County

Choppers, and they were prestigious even before the TV show.

One of the thorny parts of prestige as a career goal is the difficulty in finding jobs that straight-out

specialize in that. Frequently, what makes this kind of job attractive isn’t purely prestige, usually there’s

something else mixed in. Being a judge is prestigious, but partially because you know there’s some real

power there. Being a struggling rock musician is pretty good in terms of prestige, but only if there’s some

sober hope that one day you’ll convert into a legitimate star and not just end up with no money and

damaged eardrums. On the other end of the musical spectrum, a jazz musician who tells people that’s

what he does for a living can usually count on getting a few people to say “that’s cool” or “that’s so

interesting,” but again, part of the reason is the mixing of the music with the sense that this person has

found meaningful work, something they’d probably be doing for free if no one was paying.

Finally, the signature difference between prestige and meaningful work is that prestigious jobs by

definition demand an audience. People dedicated to a meaningful cause like protecting the welfare of

animals can labor in obscurity all their lives doing simple things that virtually no one notices, like running

a kennel for out-of-town dog owners where the pets get treated with extraordinary levels of respect. But

for this work to cross from meaningful into prestige, someone at some point has to look and say, “Wow.”

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Comfort on the job comes in all forms, spanning from the size of your desk, to how often you need to

travel in cramped airplanes, to the clothes you need to wear while on the clock. The Wall Street

Journal article grades jobs to some extent on comfort, though they call the category “Environment.” Here

are some components of an (un)comfortable workday:

 Physical demands (crawling, stooping, bending, etc.)

 Work conditions (toxic fumes, noise, etc.)

 Physical environment extremes

 Stamina required

 Degree of confinement

This is a good list of factors that move the needle on the comfort scale, but there’s something very

important missing from it. On the comfort scale, Arctic fishermen aren’t going to score highly in terms of

physical working conditions; they’re cold and wet and living in a cramped space. The food’s bad. On the

other hand, it takes a certain type of person to sign up for a job like that—a very, very specific kind of

person. And if you’re seriously thinking about it, there’s a decent chance you’re going to hit it off with—

you’re going to feel comfortable with—the other people who are doing it. The boat, consequently, will be

uncomfortable, but the company of people you’re with may be comforting.

Looking not just at the physical characteristics of the job but the other characters that’ll be there doing it

with you is important for the obvious reason: you spend a lot of time at work. (“I spend more time with

you guys than with my husband/wife” is a constant refrain in some offices.) So if your sense of humor

works well with a bunch of people you happen to know, and it turns out that many of them are nurses,

which tell you something about how you’re going to feel about seeing them bright and early every

morning, Monday through Friday.

In his book Vital Friends: the People You Can’t Afford to Live Without, Tom Rath organizes data from

Gallup polls and studies to show that employees who have good friends in the office tend to stay longer in

a job. It’s difficult to prove things about happiness, of course. It’s even hard to know exactly what

happiness is, but it seems fair to suspect that there might be a connection between duration in a job and

happiness with the job. And if there is, then feeling comfortable with the people you work with—laughing

when they laugh, watching the same TV shows, whatever—should be a job consideration.

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Pushing the importance of workmates in a different direction, in a blog post, a woman calling herself

Penelope (she doesn’t give a last name) makes a point about flourishing at work: “You’ll learn the most on

a job by having a great mentor looking after you.” [6] If that’s true, then if you choose to work in a

profession that’s full of the kind of people you respect, admire, understand, and get along with, you’re

likely to do better for yourself than working with the kind of people you don’t take seriously (or who don’t

take you seriously).

Fitting in, the point is, with the people at work isn’t just a fringe benefit; it’s a critical value to factor into

the selection of one or another career line.

For the young, job security seems like a distant virtue, a fuddy-duddy aspiration for the over-the-hill

crowd. In fact, even for the not-so-young it’s fuddy-duddy. It’s also one of the most volatile of the values

you can assign to your job search, one of the most prone to surges and retreats.

When you wake up at 3 a.m. and then can’t get back to sleep because there’s a recession and you know

cutbacks are coming, all of a sudden holding a position that maybe isn’t too glamorous but is certainly

necessary—like being a day care worker—doesn’t seem so bad.

The day you learn your family will be growing by one is another of those moments when security’s

importance blows up. And the day your husband loses his job, that’ll be another security surge.

Then there’s age. It’s a delicate subject—for legal reasons no employer wants to go on record saying they

won’t hire people older than fifty—but there comes a point when years become a disadvantage for job

seekers, which explains why an entire subfield of the résumé-writing business has now sprung up to

manage the problem. Jeanne Knight, a certified career coach and résumé expert, says, “What candidates

can do to make themselves look younger in a résumé is only list ten to fifteen years of work experience.

Also, drop graduation dates and make sure you list any seminars or workshops that focus on new

technology.”[7]

So you can figure that if older people are going that far to camouflage their overabundant experience, it

must be hard to get hired after fifty. And if that’s true, you better have good job security at forty-nine.

Finally, the easiest way to define job security is just the confidence that you won’t be fired next week, but

the discussion broadens very naturally. For example, demographic trends tell us that the American

population is aging, so if you’re deciding between studying to be an athletic trainer or a nurse, you may

well figure that over the next twenty years it’s probably going to be easier to find work in the nursing

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home than the gymnasium, and that holds regardless of how secure any single job may appear right now.

Or again, computer technologies keep entering our lives faster and from more directions, and that’s a

good clue about future job prospects.

In any case, if you’re reading this, it’s possible that you’re what marketers are calling a millennial,

meaning someone born between 1980 and 1995, more or less. If you fit the category, the TV show 60

Minutes believes you think this: “We have options. We can keep hopping jobs. No longer is it bad to have

four jobs on your résumé in a year. Whereas for our parents or even generation X, that was terrible. But

that’s the new reality for us. And we’re going to keep adapting and switching and trying new things until

we figure out what it is.” [8]

Probably, the value of job security arrives along with the realization that companies can say the same

thing about employees. A lot of them do.

Balancing the Values

One factor can be chosen to weigh more heavily than everything else combined when sorting out the

values for initiating a job search. The imbalance would go a long way toward efficiently filtering career

possibilities. For many, however, the priorities won’t sort out so easily: it’ll be necessary to balance

competing values, to trade one against another when considering specific jobs and career paths. Someone

may, for example, value both money and comfort, but that doesn’t help answer the question about

whether a job on an Alaskan crabbing ship is more or less attractive than a summer on the beach in the

lifeguard stand. In the longer term, holding the two values won’t help to decide between the career of an

undersea welder or an office worker.

How can individuals get a grip on what their own priorities are, and how much each weighs? In his essay

“Strategic Planning—For the Good Life,” Robert Solomon offers a provocative question: “Looking back

over your life from a rocking chair, what would you like to remember—and how would you like to be

remembered?” [9]

Of course, the idea isn’t to lock you into a life plan based on how things might look in the distant future.

You have no way of knowing how things will be, and if you’re a millennial, we know you don’t like life

plans anyway. Instead, the idea is to try to get a revealing angle on the question of what values in work

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really matter for you. The aim is to step away from everything and get a different perspective, a fresh look

at the problem.

That’s important because real life, moving along fast as it does, can narrow your perspective, get you

caught seeing things more or less the way everyone around you does. Faced with a career center job board

filled with interview schedules of visiting corporate recruiters, isn’t it easiest just to sign up for the ones

your friends are signing up for? If everyone in your sorority is talking about going to work at one agency

or another, or if half the people you know are getting teaching degrees, the temptation’s there to just

follow along.

When looking at things from extreme or unusual angles, those herding forces recede. At least for a bit you

can make yourself turn away from what everyone else is doing, leaving you no choice but to arrange your

own priorities for determining the kind of work you want to get involved with. Importantly, the idea isn’t

to eliminate other people from consideration but to eliminate consideration that just imitates what other

people are thinking. Here’s the beginning of a list of questions aiming to do that, aiming to shake up

thinking about the career choice and force some sorting of the basic values determining which way the

choice is going to go:

 Of the seven discussed values—meaning, leisure time, money, power, prestige, comfort, security—can you

rank them, or at least group them, from the most to least important for you? Can you take some of the

jobs or careers you’ve been considering and loosely rank them in terms of how well they fit with your list

of values?

 To make the list of values more manageable, can you cut it down by just eliminating some concerns that

you really don’t share?

 Are there any values you think should be added to the list?

 Can you make a short list of other people whose opinions are important to you, and then loosely imagine

how they would rank the seven values for evaluating jobs? If you can, is their ranking similar to yours or

different? If it’s similar, are you sure you’re thinking for yourself? If it’s different, are you sure your values

for work align with the kind of life that you respect?

 What would you like to tell your parents you’ve decided to do for a living?

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 Career day at the elementary school. You’re standing in front of your own child’s class talking about your

work. What kinds of things would you like to report and be proud to say? Looking back at your original

list of values for jobs, does it correspond with the classroom scene?

 You’ve got six months to live: what do you do? Is it something that might be related to work or is it a pure

leisure activity? (Can you imagine any job that would allow you to do that activity, whatever it is,

throughout your career?)

 You’ll live 600 years—and have to work during 550 of them—does that change your work priorities?

Should it?

 You’ll live 600 years—and have to work during 55 of them—does that change your work priorities? Should

it?

 For you, is the term couch potato a slur or just the name of a comfortable lifestyle? Are there anti–couch

potato and pro–couch potato career tracks?

 Your rich uncle dies and leaves you a sum of money and private instructions to use it to put poor children

through school in Mexico. It’s also enough to pay your college and leave a good amount left over for

whatever. No one’s watching—no one will ever know. What do you do? What does this tell you about the

place money have in your life?

 Madonna and Mick Jagger are among the world’s two richest rock stars. Imagine you could have all their

money, but be a complete unknown and have no sense of rhythm. Would you prefer that or would you

trade all the money to have their success, voice, and rhythm for one year on a world tour? Does the

decision correspond with your original ranking of the seven values?

 For you, which would be better: spending big money or having people know you’ve got big money to

spend? If it’s the second, is there a way to command respect from others that’s easier to achieve than

wealth?

 Friday night, you’re with a new group of people who know little about you. Would you rather tell them

you’ve been invited to a dinner at the White House for notable citizens or you’ll be having dinner

tomorrow at your own expansive beach house?

 You sign up for a blind dating service, hoping to meet someone to marry. The only thing you get to choose

about the man or woman you’ll be paired with is his or her job. What job would you choose to match you?

Next, imagine that you’re not ready for marriage, still exploring, and you go to the same service. What’s

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the job this time? If the two jobs are really different, does that reflect anything about where you’re at with

respect to the kind of work you want for yourself?

 Do you like being in charge, no one is telling you what to do, even telling other people what to do? Be

honest, no one’s listening. By the way, would your answer change if people were listening?

 A brutally long Friday at work comes to an end at 9 p.m. On the elevator ride down with some people in

the office, there’s a power outage. No one’s around to fix the machinery or let you out. What kind of

people would you like to have in the elevator with you? Is it possible to match these people up with the

kind of people frequently involved in one or another profession? (Alternatively, what kind of people would

lead you to investigate how your keys or the pen in your pocket could be used as a suicide implement?)

 If you could wear anything you wanted to work every day, nose rings included, what would it be? Is there

really an office anywhere where people do dress that way? What would you be willing to give up to work

there, and what does that tell you about the importance of environment (or comfort in the broad sense)

for your work?

 At the end of every month, your boss gives you a choice. You can have your $4,000 check or you can spin

a lottery wheel with a range of numbers from $1 to $8,000. Would you take the $4,000 check or spin?

Does this tell you anything about the importance of job security?

 If you’ve had time to read through this entire list of questions, do the answers you gave more or less

correspond with the ranking of the seven values—meaning, leisure time, money, power, prestige, comfort,

security—that you set up at the beginning?

Whose Job Is It, Anyway?

No one can decide for you what line of work to start down; it’s a decision only you can make and that you

have to make for yourself. This doesn’t mean, however, that your life is the only one involved in the

decision. Here’s a blog post: “I think people need to find the right job for them, the one that will make

them happy. My parents are always telling me to get a successful and well-paying job, however the job

that I really want to do probably isn’t the best paying job, but it would make me happy if I fulfill my

dream. I think people need to go out and do what they want and they will be successful in different

ways.”[10]

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Sounds good, but is it right? If you’ve adopted egoism (morality = self-interest) as your ethical compass,

then it is. Egoism makes the job search relatively easy; just find the one that will make you most happy.

On the other hand, if you think of yourself as more of a utilitarian—someone guided by the conviction that

the morally recommendable act is the one bringing the greatest good to the greatest number—then it’s not

clear whether this is the right way to go or not. On one side, it’s true that pursuing your dream of

professional satisfaction is good, but your parents’ satisfaction—everyone’s satisfaction—has to be

factored in too. It could be that your parents’ wishes—and the happiness they enjoy if you follow their

advice—outweigh the happiness and welfare you take from a career they recommend against.

Staying with the parents, and taking their side, what kind of ethical arguments can they launch against

your career choice? One of the strongest is going to be obligation in the sense of gratitude, in the sense

that we have a duty to repay those who’ve given to us. Most of us sense this as the courtesy of returning

favors. Sometimes we feel it in an inverted form as the desire to decline a gift that seems so great we won’t

be able to pay it back. The case could be made that this sense of obligation and gratitude is a virtue, the

result of a proper upbringing. Or it may be more like a duty, a sense of fairness inherent in the idea of

ethics in the first place. Regardless, it’s too late to go back now for you and your parents. All you can do is

add up everything they’ve done for you and everything you’ve done for them. It’s doubtful that there’s any

kind of balance.

In Portuguese, the word commonly used to say “thank you” is obligado, meaning I’m obligated, and there

aren’t many instances where the word is more apt than the parental relation with children. Faced with the

obligation, these are possible responses:

 I accept my obligation and will follow the career path my parents’ desire.

 I accept my obligation, but I’ll pay it off by bringing up my own children and letting them off the hook

when they hit adulthood (or through some other mechanism of repayment).

 I accept my obligation, but I won’t respect it.

Of course people are always free to pursue that last course, to say the obligation is there and I don’t care.

But if you want to continue acting ethically, that shifts the burden onto you to build a structure

for justifying walking away.

Moving from parents to others, what kind of ethical responsibilities do you hold to your spouse if you’re

married and to children if they arrive? There’s nothing wrong with being, say, a starving actor working for

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that one break on the way to fame. But it’s a different thing entirely when you’re asking someone else to

starve too so that you can go on trying to be the next Johnny Depp.

Do you owe anything to that math teacher who saw that you had exceptional ability with numbers and

used her own time after class to patiently tutor you on the subject? She probably wouldn’t have bothered if

she knew you were going to end up working at something that doesn’t involve math-related skills. She did

bother, though, so does that create a responsibility—even if it’s only a small one—to use that ability in

your professional life, to find a job that exploits your skill with numbers that she helped you acquire?

Finally, at the broadest level, what obligations do you have to the impersonal community around you, to

all those people you barely know or have never met—the woman behind the counter at the gas station, the

plant worker in Germany who helped assemble your car, some taxi driver in Thailand whose life will never

touch yours in any way? Do you owe anything to them when thinking about your long, eight-hour days?

This Is the Perfect Job for Me…Right Now

One way of dividing up the responsibility felt to yourself and to the others who share your world

is career sequencing—that is, defining zones of life and evaluating each separately in terms of work

priorities and aspirations. Meaningful labor—signing up for a rugged, low-paying trip on the Greenpeace

ship—may fit with your values right out of school. The trip allows a broad ethical vision of work, one

seeking to incorporate the welfare of others at a good time for you, while your own needs are limited.

Later on, lucrative work—signing up for a desk job administering a tourist cruise ship where the hours are

fewer and the pay higher—might prove the better fit.

Making the move from meaningful work to a more salary-centered vision of the workplace may simply

correspond to the realization that walking around in ripped jeans and a t-shirt doesn’t work with a

receding hairline. Or it may be that the others you hope to benefit with your time have come closer to

home: it’s not that you want to make the world a better place anymore so much as make the world better

for your family.

The Tuck School of Business has published a report on sequencing in today’s world. [11] Among the

findings: employees, led by women especially, are professionalizing the movement in and out of the

workplace. Exiting the daily grind to have a child is no longer understood so universally as leaving work

so much as a planned interruption to pursue personal goals. The difference between leaving and

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interrupting is that many women now step off the career track fully intending to return in the not-sodistant

future and to resume the professional trajectory already established. It’s not putting on the brakes

so much as taking a detour.

Men, the study finds, are following suit. Some are taking paternity leaves, more or less along the lines

pioneered by women, but the study also finds workers interested in professional detouring for the

following reasons:

 An avocation outside of work

 Stress and burnout

 Entrepreneurship

In all three cases, space along the career’s way is being pried open for different values to enter and at least

temporarily redefine the relation with work.

Why don’t people sequence? What keeps them in jobs they’d like to get away from, at least temporarily?

Fear that they won’t be able to get their jobs back leads the list. The study also shows, though, that many

employees in essence think that sequencing is wimpy, and it’ll mark them as unreliable and, therefore, unpromotable.

That perception may not be right, though. The study is a snapshot of a changing situation, so

it’s difficult to draw too many conclusions, but the authors do sense that that the direction of evolution

is toward sequencing, not away. More and more higher-level managers are willing to accommodate

employees who want to take detours; they’re willing to make space for them to come and go (as long as the

coming and going isn’t constant).

To the extent that’s right, the ethical relation with job selection transforms. It’s no longer the formation of

values for choosing a career track leading into the indefinite future; instead it’s a process. The ethical

question about your work, “What’s the right kind of job for me?,” is now a lingering concern, and

answering is a constant responsibility.

Do I Have to Decide?

Some millennial are big on job hopping, on experimenting with work first and then deciding on a path

instead of doing all the ethical considering up front. This is an attractive option.

There’s a risk here, though: it’s the trivialization of professional life. If you’re just going to take whatever

job comes along and see how it works out, then why bother even thinking about it at all? In fact, why

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bother switching? If you’re not going to do the work beforehand to get a grip on the kind of employment,

on the general direction of professional interest that supports the values you’ve decided to live by, then

how are you going to know the right job when you find it? Why switch jobs, in other words, when you

don’t know what you’re looking for?

This was one of Saint Augustine’s (AD 400) durable pieces of wisdom. It’s very simple: if you don’t know

what you’re seeking before you start looking, then how are you going to know when you’ve found it? Trial

and error, in other words, when you’re looking for the right kind of job (or the right romantic partner, or

the right beer, or whatever) only works if you already know what’s going to count as an error and what

counts as success.

Of course no one’s going to get everything down perfectly at the beginning. Ethically, there’s a kind of

bind here paralleling the first job and experience catch (you can’t get your first job without experience,

and you can’t get experience without your first job). Similarly, you can’t know exactly what kind of work

fits your values and outlook until you’ve learned how things really are out there in the nine-to-five world,

but that’s not a convincing reason to fall off the other extreme and just spin the wheel, take whatever

comes your way, and switch jobs without thinking.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Pursuing a specific job is an economic and also an ethical decision.

 Specific values shape the ethics of the job search.

 Job seekers hold ethical responsibilities both to themselves and to others.

 Job sequencing allows workers to manage shifting ethical responsibilities as their lives evolve.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What are some of the differences between a job that provides meaningful work, and one that provides

prestige?

2. Can leisure time—maximizing it—be pursued on its own as a value in the job search, or does it need to be

combined with other values? If it needs to be combined, which values might work best?

3. If money is selected as the prime value a job seeker decides to pursue, what other values may become

easier to reach because of the money, and which values may be pushed further away?

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4. What’s the difference between power and prestige? Can you think of a job that grants power but little

prestige and one that grants prestige but little power?

5. For you, what are the components of comfort—do they include flexible hours, working in an office instead

of outside, something else? Can you rank the components as more and less important?

6. What responsibilities to others may a job seeker consider when looking for a job?

7. What is career sequencing? What are some reasons a person may choose to sequence, and what are some

reasons a person may choose not to be a sequencer?

[1] Michael Froomkin, “What Is Your Nightmare Job?,” Discourse.net, July 19, 2007, accessed May 16,

2011,http://www.discourse.net/archives/2007/07/what_is_your_nightmare_job.html.

[2] Sarah E. Needleman, “Doing the Math to Find the Good Jobs,” Wall Street Journal, January 6, 2009, accessed

May 16, 2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123119236117055127.html.

[3] About Kendra, accessed May 16, 2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_5/Kinnison_bio.html.

[4] Hannah Clark, “Whole Foods: Spinning CEO Pay,” accessed May 16,

2011,http://www.forbes.com/2006/04/20/john-mackey-pay_cx_hc_06ceo_0420wholefoods.html.

[5] Psychology of Power, accessed May 16,

2011,http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_5/Power_in_business.html.

[6] “How to Pick the People You Work With,” Penelope Trunk (blog), May 6, 2009, accessed May 16,

2011, http://blog.penelopetrunk.com/2009/05/06/how-to-pick-the-people-you-work-with.

[7] Ric Romero, “‘Get the Job’ Pt. 4: De-Aging Resumes,” ABC7, September 3, 2008, accessed May 16,

2011, http://abclocal.go.com/kabc/story?section=news/7_on_your_side&id=6369394.

[8] “The Millennial Are Coming,” 60 Minutes, CBS News.com, May 23, 2008, accessed May 16,

2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/08/60minutes/main3475200.shtml.

[9] Joanne B. Ciulla, Clancy Martin, and Robert Solomon, eds., “Strategic Planning—for the Good Life,” in Honest

Work: A Business Ethics Reader (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 106–7.

[10] Karen Sternheimer, “How Great Is Being a Sociologist?,” Everyday Sociology (blog), January 24, 2009, accessed

May 16, 2011,http://nortonbooks.typepad.com/everydaysociology/2009/01/how-great-is-being-asociologist.

html.

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[11] Tuck Executive Education, Changing the Career Ladder: Paving Flexible Pathways for Today’s Talent (Hanover,

NH: Dartmouth, 2011), accessed May 16, 2011,http://worklifefit.com/pdf/TuckSurveysummary.pdf.

5.2 Working for Ethically Complicated Organizations

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define reasons why an organization’s work may be viewed as unethical.

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2. Consider how working for ethically troubling organizations can be managed.

The Psilocybin Project

The Harvard Psilocybin Project began in 1960 and included some of the university’s leading and most

innovative professors, especially from the psychology and related departments. One of their projects—the

Concord Prison Experiment—used the newly developed drug psilocybin on inmates. Professors wanted to

discover whether the medication could reduce antisocial behavior and recidivism. Another project, this

one carried out in tandem with the Harvard Divinity School, used the same drug to experiment with the

bond felt between young theology students and their chosen profession. In both cases, significant, even

mind-blowing success was initially reported.

The experiments didn’t last. Other Harvard professors raised questions about the ethics of using this drug

on humans. An intense conflict erupted in the university. The ethical propriety of the entire Psilocybin

Project, the decision came down, was, in fact doubtful. That quickly led to the project’s shuttering and

then to the dismissal of several well-known professors who protested too loudly in favor of their work and

its value, both scientific and moral.

Not all of those fired professors just went away. Outside the university some continued defending their

work with principled stands and meticulous arguments. One of those defenders, Dr. Leary, achieved such

broad public recognition that he ended up being mentioned in a song by The Who.

Not only did Timothy Leary defend the Psilocybin Project from outside university walls, he also continued

with his avid experimentation. Pretty soon the experiments weren’t only outside the university; they were

also outside the law because psilocybin, like its close relative LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), was

categorized as an illegal substance.

Is it immoral to experiment on people—especially on prisoners who may feel pressured to participate—

with psychedelic drugs, concretely with magic mushrooms (the organic source of psilocybin)? Assume just

for the sake of argument that it is wrong and the experiments were immoral. Now who should feel guilty?

The leaders of the Psilocybin Project seem like good candidates since they knew exactly what was going

on, and they were the ones handing the doses over. What about the graduate students who followed their

professor’s lead and joined in the distribution and application of the drugs? Or the administrators at the

university who financed the project but maybe didn’t know exactly what the experiments involved? What

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about the undergrads whose tuition money paid for all this? What about the chemists who derived the

substance from mushrooms? Or the lab techs who actually made the stuff? What about the secretary who

happened to be assigned to work in the psych department and processed some of the paperwork? Where

do we draw the line?

One of the most difficult constellations of questions facing conscientious job seekers is: what kind of

organization is it OK to work for? Specifically, to what extent am I personally responsible for the things

my company does? There are the two questions here:

1. What makes a company’s work—or universities, or a nonprofit organization’s—unethical?

2. I’ve got an attractive job offer from an unethical organization: can I work there anyway?

What Makes an Organization’s Work Unethical?

In a world spattered with poverty and desperation, exploitation of workers is one of the most frequently

cited areas of corporate abuse. Advocacy organizations peopled by volunteers who enjoy traveling have

proven very effective at locating and drawing attention to overseas sweatshops. The Nike company pays

athletes millions to break a sweat for a few hours so they can get some good action video for commercials

selling athletic shoes, but they pay sewers in Asia only a few dollars to sweat all day long making those

shoes. And what about the cameraman hired to shoot the commercial? He’s earning a lot more than the

sewer, but his wages are still closer to the sweatshop level than the NBA star level.

In An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang’s Finances, authors Steve Levitt and Sudhir Alladi

Venkatesh report on a drug gang studied over the course of several years. It turned out that the street

dealers weren’t even getting minimum wage for their dangerous efforts: about $200 a month for dealing.

Above them, however, the gang leader made between $4,000 and $11,000 a month. It’s unclear whether

he paid taxes. [1]

Questions about wages and sweatshops will be pursued more fully in later chapters, but here it’s enough

to note that vast discrepancies in wages throughout a company raise concerns that the organization is

exploiting employees. That may lead job seekers to think twice before signing on, even if they’re not the

ones being exploited.

Exploitation of consumers is another murky direction. It’s true that many immigrants from Asia, Latin

America, and elsewhere received interest-only home loans in the early 2000s with repayment schedules

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beginning low but later ballooning to monstrous levels. It’s also true that no one forced them to sign the

contract; they hold responsibility for their acts, no doubt. However, considering their imperfect English

and little knowledge of the American world, is it fair for the mortgage company to even offer these kinds

of loans, which seem more predatory than cooperative?

Tobacco companies selling addiction sticks, which sometimes become cancer sticks, aren’t clearly

removed from charges of exploiting their own buyers.

Breakfast cereals aimed at children frequently boast on the box that the nuggets or the puffs contain 100

percent of the recommended daily allowance of various vitamins and minerals. They don’t say anything

about sugar highs and crashes. In all these cases, questions about whether consumers are being respected

may lead potential employees to question whether they want to get involved in the operation.

Environmental exploitation is frequently invisible in the sense that few people suffer direct consequences

of pollution, deforestation, and poisoned water and soil. There are orange alert days in many cities now

when children are told not to play outside. But for the most part, companies that pollute may carry on

without being held directly responsible for harmful consequences. Of course there are extreme cases like

the Love Canal, the neighborhood constructed on a landfill covering thousands of rusting steel barrels of

industrial waste. Families living there reported acid slicks running down the street during rains, puddles

of rancid chemicals forming in their yards, and birth defects at astronomical levels. Whether, finally, an

organization exploits the environment in obvious or not-so-obvious ways, workers may ask if ethical

obstacles stand between them and continued employment.

Ethically dubious missions and connections is another category of corporate irresponsibility. The case of

Harvard experimenting with acid fits here. So too the drug gang studied by Levitt and Venkatesh.

Questions could also be directed toward organizations specializing in reuniting families across borders

(people smuggling).

Almost any social hot-button issue is going to double as a source of ethically challenged industries; there’ll

be people for it and others against it, but either way the questions are there. Circles of controversy

surround

 abortion doctors,

 judges sending inmates to death row,

 advocates of assisted suicide.

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One thing all these people, professions, and institutions have in common (besides inciting ethical debates)

is that they need to hire workers—telephone operators, assistants and administrators, marketers and

finance people—just like any other business. You can work for them.

You could also work for a specific kind of lawyering outfit, the one specializing in clients who are very

wealthy and very guilty: there’ll always be law firms—especially in the field of tax law—specializing in

raising a reasonable doubt where there really isn’t any.

Massage parlors need receptionists and janitors just like every other business. The horse racetrack hires a

small army of diverse workers to keep taking bets. The state lottery contracts actors, directors, film

editors, and media experts to make and run ads showing jubilant winners tossing money in the air; on the

other hand, they don’t spend much time hiring statisticians to explain to the public what the small print

on the back of their ticket means: “Really, the chances you’ll haul in the Super Magnum Jackpot are about

zero.”

Conclusion. Ethically conscientious individuals don’t have to look too hard to find jobs that make them

ask, am I participating in something that’s wrong?

I’ve Got a Job Offer at an Unethical Company; Can I Work There Anyway?

Yes. The question is how.

Ignore it all is one option, pretend like the ethical stain isn’t there or at least that you don’t see it. Here’s

an example of what that strategy can look like. Most cities have at least one free and local alternative

culture publication, usually published on newspaper-grade paper; it comes out on Thursdays and is called

The Observer or something like that. Their reporters hit the street to get the latest on the alternative

music scene and idealistic political grassroots operations and government abuses and, above all, altruistic,

principled causes. The Dallas Observer is the Dallas version. In the November 5, 2008, publication

there’s an article called “Pole Dancing—Good for the Body, But What About a Woman’s Soul?” It comes

with an honest and thoughtful objection to the caricature of femininity that was developed and mass

produced with the express goal of turning on a male audience. [2]

A few pages after the author finishes making a strong moral case against the exploitation of this

caricature, the full-page spread devoted to Debbie comes. She’s looking tight in her white bikini. She

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wants to talk to you, and her phone number’s right there on the page. In little print it says it costs $1.49

per minute. On the next page there’s Robert. He’s wearing even less. The phone call costs the same.

It’s not anybody’s fault that Debbie and Robert (or whatever their real names are) figure so prominently

on the advertising pages of a newspaper that’s so set against stereotypes like Debbie and Robert. It’s only

a fact that that’s where the money comes from to keep the otherwise idealistic and ethically elevated paper

in business. So what can the reporters do? They can object to the ads; but without them and their revenue,

there won’t be any publication left to print their articles decrying these kinds of ads. It’s a tough spot.

There’s no clear way out, which is why it’s understandable to go forward pretending you don’t see the

contradiction.

There are pacifists working for Boeing, the same company that makes warplanes. Somewhere there must

be a volunteer at the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals who holds down a day job at L’Oreal,

a company vilified on Internet petitions for its animal testing. [3] There are parents working at General

Mills who’d die before giving their kids Cocoa Puffs. There are strict Catholics working for the

pharmaceutical company that manufactures birth control pills. The list will never end because it’s always

possible to pretend you don’t see the conflict between your own moral convictions on one side and the

actions of the company you work for on the other.

But the decision to remain blind is difficult because pretending you don’t see essentially means you’re

lying—lying to yourself. The question raised here is this: can that lying be justified ethically?

If you’re a strict believer in the standard duties, which normally include the duty to honesty, you’re going

to have problems. You can, however, argue that you have a still more compelling duty to provide for your

family and loved ones. So if the job you have is the best one you can get, and then you can make the case

that your responsibility to them is greater than your responsibility to be honest with yourself. Making a

similar argument but from a slightly different direction, a utilitarian can point out the benefits a paycheck

brings—not just for the worker but also for the family and the economy generally—and from there say that

lying to yourself is good because it produces a greater general good.

Of course there are arguments that could be raised against these justifications and so the debate rolls on.

What’s important is that pretending an ethical conflict between your convictions and your company

simply isn’t there may be justifiable.

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Explicitly Accepting Employment at an Ethically Difficult Workplace

Another option for accepting a job offer in an organization you consider to be morally stained is to

explicitly accept that I work at an ethically difficult company and go on to justify the decision. There are

two directions for consideration here:

1. How seriously wrong do I believe the company’s actions are?

2. How close is my work to those actions I believe wrong?

There’s a difference between working for a firm that experiments on animals (L’Oreal) and working for

one that experiments on humans (the Harvard psychedelic drug project). Most ethically challenged jobs

are more like the former than the latter. That’s not a license to simply discount the reality that the work

may participate in a larger and objectionable process, but it does open the way to a move from an absolute

to a balanced ethical stance: it’s not that “something’s going on there that’s wrong and therefore I can’t be

involved at all”; instead “something’s going on there that’s wrong, but things could be a lot worse, plus,

the right and good things I can achieve by taking this job are pretty significant.” So start with the idea that

even if you think experimenting on animals is wrong, it’s not as bad as experimenting on humans. Then

add the good things that could come from working for an animal-abusing company. Here are two

possibilities:

1. The post allows me to maximize the use of my personal strengths. Ethics isn’t only about duties to others;

there are also duties to you. Maximizing your own potential is one of them.

2. The post allows me to better equip myself to get an improved job further down the line. If you really want

to avoid touching unethical work, then your best option may be to do whatever’s necessary to build the

strongest résumé possible. Once you’ve done that, your options for working will increase and

correspondingly the possibilities for ethically satisfying employment.

Moving to the next question—how close is my work to those actions I believe are wrong?—there’s a

difference between experimenting on animals and preparing the tax return for a company that

experiments on animals. Making this point sharper, if you adamantly refused to participate

in any company that has anything to do with animal testing, then you’re not going to be able to

participate in anything. You’re not going to be able to buy paper from the company that sells paper to the

animal testers. You’re not going to be able to use Google because people at the animal testing company

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buy advertisements on Google search pages. The list is endless in an economy that’s totally interlinked,

and our economy is pretty close to totally interlinked.

Now, if that’s right, then the relationship between you and the immorality that indisputably exists in the

economic world—and probably in the company you work for in one way or another—isn’t an issue of right

and wrong so much as a question of distance. In other words, when you’re contemplating a job, the

question isn’t whether something bad is happening there; it’s “how close does the stink get to my office?”

More, it may even be that accepting a job at a company can be a route to changing that company’s policy.

Of course that’s going to be more than difficult at a giant concern like L’Oreal, but if you’re interested in

the environment, you may end up at a small local firm that sells plastic (not biodegradable) bottles of

water, and you can advocate the forming of a company recycling program. It’s a small thing. Almost

absurd. But it’s no closer to absurd than the other choice, which is the big thing: simply refusing to work

for any company that acts objectionably in the world in one way or another.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 There is a wide range of reasons why an organization’s work may be viewed as unethical.

 There are multiple strategies for managing concerns about working for ethically troubling organizations.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. What are four reasons an organization’s actions may be viewed as ethically troubling?

2. Ethically, how could you justify ignoring the fact that there’s a conflict between your convictions and the

actions of the company you work for?

3. Why might a potential employee of an ethically troubling organization ask how seriously wrong the

organization’s actions are?

4. Explain why working for almost any organization may be ethically troubling.

5. If someone were working for an organization involved in ethically troubling activities, what questions may

they ask themselves as they consider whether they should continue working there?

[1] Steven D. Levitt and Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, “An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang’s

Finances,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115 (August 3, 2000): 755–89.

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[2] Megan Feldman, “Pole Dancing—Good for the Body, but What about a Woman’s Soul?,” Dallas Observer,

November 6, 2008, accessed May 16, 2011,http://www.dallasobserver.com/2008-11-06/news/pole-dancingclasses-

mdash-good-for-the-body-but-what-about-a-woman-s-soul.

[3] Cherry Marrone, “Stop L’Oreal’s Animal Testing,” Care 2 Petition Site, accessed May 16,

2011, http://www.thepetitionsite.com/1/stop-loreals-animal-testing.

5.3 Case Studies

The Ethics of Grunge Work

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Source: Photo courtesy of ictsan, http://www.flickr.com/photos/ictsan/3025080337/.

Jason Everman (b. 1967), Kodiak, Alaska

In February 1989, Jason Everman joined a new act called Nirvana as a backup guitarist. A few months

later the group’s first record, a raw and noisy effort titled Bleach, was recorded and released by an obscure

local distributor.

Everman played in the 1989 summer tour supporting Bleach, then was kicked out of the band: the rest of

the guys found him too show bizzy on stage and too introverted off it. Bleach scored a minor success on

the college radio circuit.

Nirvana’s 1991 follow-up, Never mind, is one of the more important and financially lucrative pieces of

recorded music in history.

In 1990, Everman joined Sound garden to play bass on their promotional tour for the EP Loudest Love.

Not meshing with the other band members, he was sent packing after the tour’s end.

Sound garden’s 1991 release Bad motor finger scored a moderate success with the indie crowd. The 1994

follow-up, Super unknown, debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart. It stayed there.

In 1994, Everman joined the US Army Rangers and then a Special Forces unit. He toured in Afghanistan

and Iraq. He was honorably discharged in 2006.

Fifteen minutes of fame came to Everman on November 10, 2008, when he was featured in a New

Yorker piece titled “Theatre of War.” While being interviewed to provide a veteran’s perspective on war, a

friend of Everman’s breaks in to add that besides being a warrior, Everman had once been a musician. The

article’s author was skeptical. But, she writes, later investigation revealed that Everman had, in fact, been

a small-time rock star.

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During the interview Everman related that he’s a devotee of the Renaissance intellectual Benvenuto

Cellini, who believed that in order to live a full life, you must develop each of the soul’s three parts: the

artist, the warrior, and the philosopher. At the time of the interview, Everman—bearded and heavily

tattooed—was studying philosophy at Columbia University in New York City.

Kurt Cobain (b. 1967), Aberdeen, Washington

Cobain was born into a broken home and eventually lived with a born-again Christian family. He adopted

the religion. The faith didn’t last; soon he was spray painting “God is Gay” onto random pickup trucks in

the neighborhood.

In 1981, his uncle gave him a choice between a bike and a guitar for his birthday. He went for the guitar.

By March 1988, Cobain had formed a noisy outfit called Nirvana. They were playing dives around Seattle,

doing bad covers, and making up some of their own songs. They decided to make a record. No one wanted

to sponsor them. They decided to go ahead anyway and pay for it themselves. None of them had any

money.

In 1989, another local musician, Jason Everman, agreed to pay the $606.17 it cost to make the record if

they’d let him join the group. They did. They recorded Bleach. Though he’s named on the credits and

pictured (hazily) on the cover, Everman didn’t actually play on any of the tracks. Cobain said the credit

was a symbolic thanks to Everman for paying the $600 it cost to record the album. Everman never got his

money back.

The group took the music on the road, and when they returned home, they kicked Everman out.

The group’s next record, Never mind, knocked Michael Jackson’s disco sensation Dangerous off the top

of the charts in January 1992.

In 1991, Cobain met Courtney Love. They did massive drugs, got married, and she got pregnant.

While revolving through detox programs and heroin binges, Cobain wrote music for the next album. In

Utero debuted at number one in 1993.

In 1994, Cobain committed suicide with a shotgun. These are fragments of his note:

I haven’t felt the excitement of creating music for too many years now. For example when we’re

backstage and the lights go out and the roar of the crowds begins, it doesn’t affect me the way it

used to. The fact is, I can’t fool you, any one of you. It simply isn’t fair to you or me. The worst

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crime I can think of would be to rip people off by faking it and pretending as if I’m having 100%

fun. Sometimes I feel as if I should have a punch-in time clock before I walk out on stage.

I can’t stand the thought of the self-destructive death rocker I’ve become. I don’t have the passion

anymore, and so remember, it’s better to burn out than to fade away. [1]

QUE STIONS

1. Consider the seven values used for ethically defining jobs: meaningful work, leisure time, money,

power, prestige, comfort, and security.

o Just from what you’ve read about Everman and Cobain, which values do, they share? Where do

they diverge?

o Are there any values not on the list that could be added to apply to the careers of either Everman

or Cobain?

2. Everman worked to live; Cobain lived to work.

o What does that mean?

o Do you think it’s true? Explain.

o Does this split also divide up the seven values used for ethically defining jobs? If not, why not? If

so, what’s the split?

3. Everman is a sequencer; he wholeheartedly followed one career path, then a second, and a third.

He’s a different kind of sequencer than the more standard version: a man or woman following a

single main career path interrupts it to do something else (have a child, start a small company,

travel around the world) and then returns to the old job.

o What’s the difference between these two kinds of sequencing in terms of the value of work and

what it can give you?

o Would it be useful to have different names for these two types of sequencers, or would that be

splitting hairs?

4. According to Everman, Cellini believed that in order to live a full life, you must develop each of the soul’s

three parts: the artist, the warrior, and the philosopher. Assuming this is true; must it necessarily involve

one’s work life? Is it possible to define a full life that doesn’t include any reference to your gainful

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employment (in other words, is it possible to live fully without worrying about what your job is)? What

values for work are implied by your response?

5. Cobain comes to believe that he’s unethically exploiting consumers.

o In what sense is he unethically exploiting consumers?

o What does Cobain’s feeling reveal about the values he associates with his work life?

o Was Cobain’s response to his perceived failure justifiable? Explain.

6. Whose career would you rather have: Everman’s or Cobain’s? Why? What does that tell you

about your values?

7. In the career you’ve chosen for yourself (just pick one, if you haven’t), what would it mean to burn out?

What would it mean to fade away?

8. Is it better to burn out or fade away? Justify in terms of the values that can be attached to working life.

Cop or Drug Dealer?

Source: Photo courtesy of Todd Huffman, http://www.flickr.com/photos/oddwick/1954905403/.

Roberto Pulido, a ten-year veteran of the Boston Police Department, was arrested by the FBI and charged

with protecting drug dealers, cocaine dealing, identity theft, obstruction of justice, robbery, assault and

battery, and money laundering. [2]

QUE STIONS

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1. What are some of the advantages to being a policeman? What are some of the advantages to

being a drug dealer? Presumably, Pulido started out being an honest cop, and over the course of

ten years fell (or climbed) into the illegal drug business. Can you imagine how the seven values of

his work might have shifted as this transformation developed?

o Which values grew in importance?

o Which might have fallen away?

o Could any of the values have been maintained through the shift in professions?

2. Officer Pulido is a career sequencer, but it’s a unique kind of sequencing because his two careers actually

contradict each other. It’s not that he took time off to follow some outside interest, and it’s not that he

pursued various jobs that all fit into a larger plan. He did one thing and then the opposite. Is there a sense

in which he has canceled out his professional life? Explain.

3. Imagine that you are considering two career directions: joining the police academy or growing

some pot in the basement and getting a start in the drug-dealing business.

o Regardless of whether you’d ever actually do it, what ethical theory (duties, rights, utilitarianism,

some other) could be employed to justify the decision to go the drug route?

o What ethical theory (duties, rights, and utilitarianism, some other) could you employ to justify the

decision to go the police route?

4. Apply Nietzsche’s theory of eternal recurrence to the cop/drug-dealer choice. You would have to choose

one life and live it over and over forever. Which would you choose? Why? Does that tell you anything

about what you should do with the one and only life you have?

5. Doctors and pharmacists deliver powerful, addictive drugs that send waves of tremendous pleasure

through the users’ bodies (and sometimes those meds result in abuse and death). So that makes three

career directions that have something in common: doctor, pharmacist, and street drug dealer. Now, in

terms of the seven values of work, what do the jobs have in common, and where do they diverge?

6. From the newspaper report on the Pulido case, “Pulido bought a Hyde Park building where his

wife began teaching dance to children—and where once a month for the next several years Pulido

hosted and provided protection for drug-and-sex parties. Admittance ran from twenty to forty

dollars, and narcotics were often in open use. Lap dances in the “boom-boom room” cost an

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additional twenty dollars. As many as one hundred people attended on a given night, including

well-known felons, drug dealers, and law-enforcement officers—some in uniform.”

Compare and contrast Pulido’s wife’s job and Pulido’s. Which post is most desirable for the person

valuing prestige?

7. How could Pulido’s drug operation be characterized as unethical in terms of the exploitation of

consumers?

8. In a sense, Pulido’s wife worked for her husband. By running a dance school out of the building

where Pulido operated, she provided cover for his operation.

o How could the argument be made that she has an ethical responsibility to resign from her job by

shutting down the dance classes so that her husband could no longer use the space to sell drugs?

o In ethical terms, how could she justify pretending not to know what was going on in her building

once a month?

o In ethical terms, and assuming she explicitly recognizes and accepts that she’s providing space and

cover for her husband’s activities, how could she justify continuing to work for his operation?

9. Assuming you were a drug dealer, who would you sell to, and not sell to? Why? Does this tell you anything

about how willing you might be in the future to work for an ethically challenged corporation?

10.

Investigative Fashion Journalism

Source: Photo courtesy of Dave Bleasdale, http://www.flickr.com/photos/sidelong/4110738292/.

The blogger Dahlia (she doesn’t provide her last name) wants to invent a new career. She calls it

investigative fashion journalism. In condensed and slightly altered form, here’s what she writes:

Investigative Fashion Journalism is a different kind of job. When people talk investigative

journalism they think Watergate, Area 51, etc. Also, due to watching too many movies, there’s the

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fear that the consequences of investigative journalism include losing your job, your family, your

money, and on the very rare occasion—your life. (Though last I’ve heard, the fashion journalists

that I’ve admired are still very much alive.) Part of the fun is being your own detective by trying

to dig up evidence, to see what the big cover up is about. I mean, how many of you were actually

aware that illegal immigrants working long hours in manufacturing jobs were happy being paid

minimum wage in Europe?

We love scandals. And what better scandals can you uncover than the fashion industry? I mean I

know celebrity gossip is hot right now, but exposing a multi-billion dollar industry gives me a

bigger high, but that’s just me. Also, by exposing the corruption like those working illegal

immigrants, you can change how the industry works and perhaps enforce better practices for all

current and new companies coming into the mix. If you lead by good example others will follow,

right?

If local universities would offer such a program in journalism, I’d sign up for it in a heartbeat.

Unfortunately, for now, I’m resolved to my fashion blog. [3]

QUE STIONS

1. “Part of the fun,” she writes, “is being your own detective by trying to dig up evidence, to see what the big

cover up is about.” Is there a connection between “fun” and meaningful work? Where does fun fit in the

consideration of values to be weighed when considering a career track?

2. What career-related values do you suspect light up Dahlia and, more generally, the kinds of people who

try to make up jobs for themselves?

3. Ethically troubling exploitation in the fashion industry.

o Do you think she thinks there’s exploitation in the fashion industry? Where?

o If there is exploitation—if something ethically reproachable is going on—what’s her relation to

that blemish? Is she guilty too? Explain.

Octomom

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Source: Photo courtesy of mangpages, http://www.flickr.com/photos/mangpages/3701097713/.

In January 2009, the woman known as Octomom gave birth to octuplets. Her real name is Nadia

Suleman; she’s a single mother who’d split from her husband because they were unable to have children

together. She was on welfare when she conceived the children via in-vitro fertilization. She already had six

young ones at home.

All her children were implanted by Dr. Michael Kamrava.

The delivery required forty-six doctors, nurses, and attendants.

In 2009, she was offered $1 million to star in a pornographic movie. She refused, but later that year she

signed a contract for each of her children to earn $250 a day to star in a reality show.

QUE STIONS

1. Make the ethical case that a nurse should not seek employment in the office of Dr. Michael Kamrava, even

though he pays well.

2. Justify a nurse’s decision to work in the office of Dr. Michael Kamrava, because he pays well.

3. What alignment of work-related values may have led Nadia Suleman to reject work as a porn star but

accept the role of reality TV actress (along with her many children)?

Paralegal or Lawyer?

Source: Photo courtesy of Tami Vroma, http://www.flickr.com/photos/32314864@N02/3253051215/.

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Sally Kane, an attorney and writer, drew up a list comparing the practical realities of two careers,

paralegal and lawyer. Here’s a summary:

Paralegal: A few months training.

Lawyer: A few years of school after college.

Paralegal: Low-cost education.

Lawyer: Law school is EXPENSIVE.

Paralegal: Earning limit under $100,000 in most markets.

Lawyer: The sky.

Paralegal: A paralegal now is pretty much a paralegal forever.

Lawyer: Working as a lawyer opens doors to other careers.

Paralegal: One of the fastest-growing careers in United States.

Lawyer: Job outlook above average.

Paralegal: Limited responsibility and stress.

Lawyer: High responsibility and stress.

Paralegal: Overtime pay.

Lawyer: If there’s work until 11 pm, you work to 11 pm.

Paralegal: Once you’ve got the job, no more school.

Lawyer: You need to keep updating your knowledge (every year, if you’re a tax attorney).

Paralegal: Shorter learning curve and your work is routine and mundane.

Lawyer: Long learning curve and your work is intellectually challenging and varied.

Paralegal: Cubicle.

Lawyer: Private office. [4]

QUE STIONS

1. This comparison is a list of facts. Can you go through the list and attach ethical value to the facts?

In terms of what value(s) does each fact make a job more or less desirable?

o Make the ethical case that it’s better to go the paralegal route.

o Make the ethical case that it’s better to go the lawyer route.

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2. If you’ve developed a short list of career options, can you go through and make up a sort of career

decision spreadsheet that resembles the one just constructed for lawyers and paralegals? It would list the

two or three jobs you’re considering. Then one column would list the factual advantages and

disadvantages of each one, things about vacation time, salary, working conditions, and so on. Finally,

there’d be your unique part: the notation of which of those facts held value and importance in your life

and with respect to the role you imagine work to have for you in the coming years.

[1] Wikipedia, “Death of Kurt Cobain,” accessed May 16,

2011,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Kurt_Cobain#Suicide_note.

[2] David S. Bernstein, “Cop or Drug Dealer?,” Phoenix Boston, November 9, 2006, accessed May 16,

2011, http://thephoenix.com/Boston/News/26961-Cop-or-drug-dealer/?rel=inf.

[3] Dahlia, “Investigative Fashion Journalism,” Dualité, July 7, 2008, accessed May 16, 2011.

[4] Sally Kane, “Should You Become a Paralegal or Lawyer?,” About.com, accessed May 16,

2011, http://legalcareers.about.com/od/legalcareerbasics/a/paralegallawyer.htm.

Chapter 6

Employee’s Ethics: Getting a Job, Getting a Promotion,

Leaving

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Chapter Overview

Chapter 6 “Employee’s Ethics: Getting a Job, Getting a Promotion, Leaving” examines some ethical

decisions facing employees. It considers the values that underlie and guide choices about how you go

about getting a job, how you maneuver for a better one, and what the right moment is for leaving.

6.1 The Résumé Introduction

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define ways job seekers may misrepresent themselves on a résumé.

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2. Construct an ethical framework for managing the dilemmas of crafting a résumé.

Robert Irvine’s Stretched Résumé

For many job seekers the first—and maybe the only—chance they get to impress a potential employer is a

résumé. What are the ethics of presenting your qualifications on a sheet of paper?

Robert Irvine is a muscled chef from England who you may have seen hosting the Food Network’s

popular Dinner: Impossible. It’s a good job. The TV show generates free publicity for his

cookbook Mission: Cook! and affords him the kitchen credibility to open his own restaurants. That was

the idea he brought to St. Petersburg, Florida, in 2008. His concept for south Florida, actually, was two

restaurants: Ooze and Schmooze. Ooze was going to be the accessible, entry-level place and Schmooze the

highbrow complement. His biography—the summary of his professional life and experiences that he

presented to potential investors—was impressive. According to the St. Petersburg Times, he advertised

his résumé as including:

 A bachelor’s of science degree in food and nutrition from the University of Leeds.

 Royal experience working on the wedding cake for Prince Charles and Princess Diana.

 He was a knight, as in Sir Robert Irvine, Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, handpicked by

the Queen.

 For several consecutive years, he’d received the Five Star Diamond Award from the American Academy of

Hospitality Sciences.

 He’d served as a White House chef. [1]

Everything came to an end, though, at least temporarily, when Food Network fired him for résumé lies.

Here’s the truth about the listed items:

 The claimed BS degree? According to a press officer at the University of Leeds, “We cannot find any

connection in our records between Robert and the university.”

 The royal wedding cake? Well, he did help pick some of the fruit that went into it.

 The knighthood? No.

 The Five Star Diamond Award? True, but it’s not the AAA’s prestigious Five Diamond Award or Mobil’s

five stars. The American Academy of Hospitality Sciences is actually a guy’s apartment in New York, and

the award is granted to anyone who pays a fee.

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 White House chef? Kind of. But he didn’t prepare sophisticated dishes for the president or anything like

that; he cooked food for the cafeteria line, serving military workers at the White House.

Certainly, Robert Irvine isn’t the first guy to stretch his résumé, but he does an excellent job of exploring

the many ways people can misrepresent themselves when trying to get a job. Generally, there are two

kinds of résumé abuses. Positive résumé misrepresentations are those items on a résumé that simply

aren’t true. Examples include:

 False credentials. These are certificates of accomplishment that don’t exist. Irvine said he had a BS

degree. He didn’t. This kind of misrepresentation is especially tempting for job seekers who didn’t quite

finish their degree. One of the obvious practical problems is that claims like this can be verified or

disproven by human resource departments. (Or, as in Irvine’s case, by enquiring newspaper reporters.)

 False experience. Untruthfully claiming to have participated in projects. Irvine asserted that he’d been

a White House chef, meaning he’d planned sophisticated menus and prepared dishes for dignitaries. He

didn’t. He cooked assembly-line food in the cafeteria for White House staff workers.

 Embellished experience. This is the easiest kind of résumé misrepresentation. Irvine really did work

on the royal wedding cake, but only picking fruit, not actually making it. His claim, therefore, isn’t directly

false, but incredibly misleading. The same could be said about the Five Star Diamond Award. While

technically true, it’s not the meaningful award that people imagine it to be.

 False chronology. Anyone who’s suffered long periods of unemployment—or just been fired from a job

and taken a while to find another one—has surely been tempted to adjust the dates on their résumé to

make it seem as though they went smoothly from one post to another.

 False references. Listing someone to vouch for your experience who really won’t or can’t. Irvine said

he’d been selected by the Queen of England for a knighthood. It never got to the point where someone

actually called her to ask, but if they would’ve, she would’ve drawn a blank. Of course people don’t

normally list royalty as a reference, but in everyday life, it’s easy to commit the same misrepresentation.

One fraternity brother could list another as a former boss. A woman could list a brother-in-law.

Negative résumé misrepresentations are those items that would appear on a complete résumé, one listing

all your working experience, but that conveniently get left out of the one you submit to a potential

employer. If you were fired from your first job at McDonald’s years ago because you kept forgetting to take

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the fries out of the oil pit, no one’s going to object when you drop those months off your work history. On

the other hand, if, up until two months ago, you were in charge of the vehicle fleet for a hotel, and you

were fired for taking your girlfriend out in the company limo after hours, leaving that off your résumé is

misleading new prospective employers.

In the case of Irvine, things worked out for him in the end. After he publicly recognized the truth and

cleaned up the most outrageous resume claims, he got his TV show back.

The Ethics of Stretching the Résumé

It’s hard to define all the ethical lines dividing what should and shouldn’t be included in a job applicant’s

résumé, but steps can be taken to control the situation. If you’re sitting at your desk trying to figure out

whether there should be any deleting, fudging, or exaggerating, two questions can help get a hold of the

situation:

1. Who will be affected by my decision?

2. Does it matter what everyone else is doing?

The first person affected by your decision is you, and everyone’s closest ethical responsibility is the one

they hold to themselves, the responsibility to respect their own dignity and abilities. One way of taking

that responsibility seriously is to look back at the jobs you’ve held and ask what kinds of tasks they

entailed and how those experiences and the skills taken from them might be stated in a broad and

appealing way. Probably, Irvine went overboard when he translated the fact that he’d chosen fruit

included in a royal wedding cake into the claim that he participated in assembling and cooking it. But it

also seems like it’d be a mistake to say that he’d been a simple “fruit picker” on a wedding cake job. In the

culinary world, his was important fruit picking. Irvine’s mistake, in other words, wasn’t that he tried to

make himself look good, it’s that he couldn’t find a way to do it without essentially lying about his

experience.

The duty to present yourself positively to potential employers may also justify the decision to leave

certain, let’s say, unfortunate aspects of your professional life off the résumé. Irvine doesn’t talk much

about how his endeavor to create restaurants in St. Petersburg fell apart in a sorry mess. If tomorrow he

goes out and tries to stir up investors for a new pair of restaurants somewhere else, he has an obligation to

be honest with them about what happened last time. But if he’s looking for a job as a TV cook, or just as a

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cook in a restaurant, then he may be able to justify leaving that bad episode unmentioned. The reasoning?

The fact that he’s bad at mounting restaurants doesn’t mean he’s a bad TV personality or an error-prone

cook. The one job has little in common with the others. So if he’s applying to be a cook, he could possibly

leave the negative information about his other business ventures out based on the idea that it’s simply not

applicable to the employment being sought.

The duty to you, finally, points toward a résumé presentation that sets your accomplishments and skills in

boldface while not dwelling on extraneous shortcomings.

Another person affected by your résumé decisions—the choice about how much truth to tell and hide—is

the person doing the hiring. If you claim experience you don’t really have and skills you don’t possess, the

supervisor who oversaw your contracting won’t just be disappointed and angry as he watches you stumble

and trip over tasks that should be easy. The botched hiring will also reflect negatively on him when

superiors evaluate his performance and make decisions about pay raises and promotions. He’s going to

suffer because you lied. There is, in other words, a loser when you scam to get a job that you’re not really

qualified for. More, that harm accrues to the company as a whole. Maybe costs will increase because more

training than expected will be necessary. Maybe an account will be lost when you fumble an assignment

that should be automatic.

Your potential future workmates also have a stake in your application for a job. If you claim, as Irvine did,

to have worked on the Charles and Diana wedding cake, it seems fair for your boss to assume you’ll be

able to manage producing first-rate cakes for ordinary people. If you can’t, if you have no idea how to

serve up even a simple layer cake, someone else on the team is going to have to step in and do your work

for you. They probably won’t get your paycheck at the end of the month, however.

Other applicants for a job also have a stake in your own application. It’s a competitive world, and while

you’re the one who can best make the case for your ability, making false claims doesn’t just give you an

opportunity you may not otherwise receive: it takes an opportunity away from someone else.

What’s Everyone Else Doing?

The first step in getting control of your résumé’s relation with the hard truth is working through how any

particular decision affects those involved. The second step is determining whether it matters what

everyone else is doing. The question is important because applying for jobs doesn’t happen in a vacuum.

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If everyone stretches their qualifications to the extent Irvine demonstrated, then obviously you may want

to consider whether you need to do the same just to get a fair shake.

A web page with a very truthful URL, Fakeresume.com, and takes up the question about how much

fibbing is going on out there. Under the heading “The UGLY Truth About How People Are Outsmarting

You!” they assert,

Over 53% of job seekers lie on their résumés. Over 70% of college graduates admit to lying on

their résumés to get hired. Can you afford not to know the techniques, tricks and methods they

use? [2]

Fair question. Of course no one knows exactly how much cheating goes on, but as Irvine attests, there’s

definitely some out there. So should you get in on it? The argument in favor roughly corresponds with the

web page’s pitch. If everyone’s doing it—if exaggeration is expected—then employing the same

misrepresentations that guide everyone else isn’t really lying. Like driving sixty down a fifty-five-milesper-

hour highway when all the other cars are going that fast too, your exaggerations are following the

rules as everyone seems to understand them. From this point of view, you may even have a duty to

exaggerate because not doing so, as the web page claims, isn’t being an ethical hero, it’s just being

outsmarted. And in a competitive environment, you at least have the moral obligation to not let yourself

be snookered.

On the other side, where do these percentages—53 percent, over 70 percent—come from? The web page

doesn’t say, and if they’re not true, then doesn’t the whole argument—do it because everyone else is doing

it—reduce to an excuse to lie?

In the case of Fakeresume.com, it couldn’t be more obvious what’s going on. The site is offering you a way

to not tell the truth and not feel bad about it. Instead of offering moral guidance, it’s inventing a way for

you to justify taking the easy path, to justify padding the résumé without having to consider whether that’s

the right thing to do.

Conclusion. In the midst of résumé-stretching dilemmas, what other people are doing matters. Hiring is

relative; there’s hardly anyone who’s perfect for any job, recruiters take the applicant who’s best suited.

Your obligation—to yourself and to the recruiter—is to show why you may be the best suited of the

applicants. That may mean (using the language of Fakeresume.com) use the résumé-enhancing

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techniques commonly employed. It doesn’t mean, however, just imagining that everyone else is laying

their pants off and then using that as an excuse to lie yourself.

Résumé Verification and the Law

One problem Robert Irvine faced was his very public personality. To stir up interest in the restaurants he

planned for St. Petersburg, he had to stir up interest in himself. All the commotion drew the attention of a

local newspaper reporter who ended up blowing the whistle on the résumé exaggerations and concoctions.

More ordinarily, job applicants don’t need to worry about reporters prying into their claims. Most

medium and larger companies do, however, pass résumés through human resources departments and

they typically confirm the significant, objective claims of job seekers. Items like degrees obtained can

typically be verified. So too dates of previous employment and job titles. Every company will follow its

own internal guidelines, of course, so it’s impossible to make a table listing the misrepresentations that

will and won’t slip through, but it’s certain that objectively false information may come to light sooner or

later.

If false information does come to light, are there legal complications? Probably not. Because résumés

aren’t binding, signed agreements between the applicant and employer, they’re generally protected by

free-speech guidelines. In the case of Irvine, if he claimed he was Superman, there’s nothing the police

could do about it. That said, efforts have been made to take some action against the most extreme cases of

résumé misrepresentations. A number of legislative measures have been proposed to punish those who lie

about a military record and honors received. Also, in Washington State in 2006, legislation was advanced

to fine and briefly imprison applicants found guilty of claiming advanced degrees they didn’t actually

earn. The measure ultimately failed. [3]

Conclusion. Most résumé misrepresentations don’t cross into illegality. This is one of those areas in the

business world where legal right and wrong diverges clearly from ethical right and wrong.

Ethical Egoism and Résumé Misrepresentations

Ethical egoism means your moral responsibility is to act in your own interest no matter what that may

require. This provides a license for outright résumé invention (a false BS degree and imaginary

knighthood for Irvine). But, as is always the case with egoism, the question must be asked whether job

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seekers really serve their own interests when they claim things that may later be revealed to be false or

when they land jobs they later won’t be able to perform because their qualifications were fake.

One specific warning for the egoist comes from the admissions department at the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology. One of the world’s elite universities, the task of selecting each year’s freshman class is as

daunting as it is important for a school dedicated to preserving its reputation. The head of that office in

2007 was Marilee Jones. One of her central skills was the ability to distinguish high schoolers who’d truly

excelled from those who got great grades by taking easy classes. Her widely admired skill, in other words,

was filtering out grade sheets (which are students’ résumés) that misleadingly stretched the students’

classroom accomplishments. She went on using that skill until it was discovered that twenty-eight years

earlier, when she’d first applied to work at the school, she’d invented a few degrees for herself. She was

fired on the spot. [4]

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 There are multiple kinds of positive résumé misrepresentations and negative résumé misrepresentations.

 Managing the dilemmas of crafting a résumé requires accounting for obligations to all those who will be

affected by the résumé.

 Circumstances involving the specific post being sought, along with commonly accepted practice, may

determine the extent to which misrepresentations are ethically objectionable.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Who are the people affected by résumé truth decisions?

2. What are five distinct ways you may choose to misrepresent yourself on your résumé?

3. What’s the difference between legal and ethical approaches to the question about padding the résumé?

4. Why might a job seeker have a duty to blur parts of his or her work history?

5. Why might an egoist lie on the résumé, and why not?

[1] Ben Montgomery, “TV Chef Spiced Up His Past Exploits,” St. Petersburg Times, February 17, 2008, accessed May

17, 2011,http://www.sptimes.com/2008/02/17/Southpinellas/TV_chef_spiced_up_his.shtml.

[2] Fakeresume.com accessed May 17, 2011, http://fakeresume.com.

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[3] Candace Heckman, “Lying on Résumé Could Land You in Jail,” SeattlePI, March 3, 2006, accessed May 17,

2011, http://www.seattlepi.com/local/261747_diplomamill04.html.

[4] Marcella Bombardieri and Andrew Ryan, “MIT Dean of Admissions Resigns for Falsifying Resume,” Boston

Globe, April 26, 2007, accessed May 17,

2011,http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/04/mit_dean_of_adm.html.

6.2 What Am I Worth?

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L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Distinguish the free market from other methods for determining a just salary.

2. Consider the justification of wage demands.

Bogus Job Offer Converted into a Real Raise?

In her blog Female Science Professor, the author considers a problem. She’s got a lab research assistant

whom she calls post doc, which presumably means he got his PhD, but he’s still hanging around the

university and working for low pay. She wants to give him a raise. The higher-ups, however, won’t

approve it. So she writes,

I’m pretty sure I could get a colleague at another institution to send my post doc an e-mail

expressing an interest in hiring him away from my institution (but without any real intention of

doing so). With such a letter in hand, there’s a good chance I could get the raise approved.

Ethical? No. Should I do it anyway? [1]

Actually, the ploy may be considered ethical within a purely market-driven framework for setting salaries.

Cutting the details and reducing to the situation’s essence, the worker is in effect threatening to not show

up for work anymore unless there’s a larger paycheck. That means the employer is being forced to

determine if the employee is worth the extra money. The answer will follow from a survey of available

workers in the market, and an answer to the question as to whether another can be found to perform the

same duties equally well without demanding more pay. If not, then the increase will probably be granted.

If a replacement can be found, then things will get awkward as the lab assistant tries to walk back his

threat. The walking back is an etiquette problem, though, not an ethical one. From this perspective, in

terms of ethics, all that happened is the worker tried to get a raise and didn’t.

Obviously there’s a loose end here; there’s the question about whether the lying is ethical. It depends.

Placing the question in the context of organized labor, is it ethical for a union organization to bluff, to say

they’ll go on strike while knowing they really won’t? What about less direct lies? An employee that’s

actually satisfied with her salary may feign unhappiness in order to squeeze out a little extra. Further,

almost all hard-nosed business negotiation entails a bit of posturing. Not many cars have been sold

without the seller at least initially insisting, “Well, I can’t possibly go below x price for this fine

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automobile.” And then, after a visit with the manager or some other contrived breakthrough, the seller

decides, “Well, in this special case, maybe I can do a little better.”

In one form or another, a pure market economy occasionally (or maybe frequently) reduces to both sides

insisting that they can’t pay more or give less, and in the end, both sides meet somewhere in the middle.

As for the previous claims about other jobs or threats to go on strike or insisting that the price can’t

possibly come down or whatever, all that washes away when hands finally shake.

The ethical foundation undergirding and justifying participating in business this way is libertarian in

nature. It starts with the premise that we’re all independent actors out in the business world trying to

accrue the most for ourselves, and others are out to do the same thing. We all know the rules, we’re all

adults. When we negotiate a pay raise, we may exaggerate circumstances or say some things that aren’t

true. But at the end of the day, no one forces the employer to pay more; it’s the employer’s choice. As for

the employee, the empty threat to leave may be presented at the bargaining table, but it’s not so much a lie

as a commonly used negotiating technique, just a way of upping the pressure. It is, therefore, ethically

acceptable to invent another job offer but only within the confines of business negotiating and only

because everyone knows the give-and-take happens that way.

There is another side to this, however. If you don’t accept that negotiating in business is a kind of specialrules

game where posturing and exaggerating are customary, then you may want to argue that talking

about salaries isn’t any different from any other kind of conversation. If it’s not, then the ethical argument

against leveraging an imaginary job offer to force a pay raise finds a solid foundation on the bedrock duty

not to lie regardless of the circumstances. For anyone who begins from the ethical foundation that any

morally acceptable act must not breach certain ironclad principles—don’t lie, don’t steal, and similar—it

becomes impossible to justify making up a nonexistent job offer, even if that’s the way the game of

business is being played by others.

The Role of the Larger Community in Determining Wages

There are two broad ways to get a fix on your own economic worth. One operates within the open market:

economic free agents meet and sessions of no-holds-barred negotiations result in an answer. The other

broad approach to setting wages places the issue within the context of a larger community. Here, it’s not

so much that we’re bargaining individuals dealing to get the best possible result; instead, we’re part of a

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business organization and a larger society, and wages get distributed across it in accordance with

guidelines and norms. There are multiple kinds of guidelines. They include

 my value to the organization,

 the ability of the organization to pay,

 the community wage level,

 the wages paid to other employees in the organization,

 my experience and seniority relative to others in the organization,

 the future jobs a post may prepare me for.

Trying to determine what a fair salary would be for post doc in terms of his

value to the organization requires determining how much of the organization’s profit he actually

produces. A researcher in a science lab may, under this system, labor for years without any pay at all if his

investigative work fails to produce a marketable product. On the other hand, if after years of labor his

research finally yields a breakthrough, his wages conceivably shoot to astronomical levels.

Needless to say, this wage-determining structure won’t work very well for lab researchers or for any kind

of job that requires years of labor before any return may be anticipated. It does function, however, for

businesses like American Apparel. They pay their clothing sewers a small base wage, and then a large

secondary amount that rises or falls depending on their output, on the number of garments they add to

the inventory. In essence, each week workers bring home a paycheck corresponding with the value they’ve

added to the company. That means the relation between the sewers and American Apparel is

fundamentally cooperative; it’s not a worker negotiating against the organization but the two laboring

together and splitting the fruits of the efforts.[2]

Another broad context into which the wage question may be fitted is the organization’s ability to pay.

A lab assistant may choose, for example, to accept a pay cut to help the firm weather a period when no one

seems able to invent anything that can be sold. The hope would be that, later on, when someone finally

gets that breakthrough and profits zoom, everyone’s wages will shoot up too.

A third context for setting wages is the community wage level. Going back to American Apparel, their Los

Angeles factory pays workers more than twice the US minimum wage, plus benefits. That’s not a lot of

money for California, but it’s ten times more than what sewers in countries including China make for

similar work, which doesn’t mean, within this context, that those overseas workers are being abused, only

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that salaries should be comparable with what others in the immediate area make. Two employees may

receive, therefore, radically different paychecks for the same work, but that’s ethically appropriate if the

wage levels are initially set to correspond with local costs of living and standard practices.

Organizational wage level is another way of standardizing employee pay. In this case, a lab researcher

would base demands for a raise on the argument that others working in the same lab are being paid more

than he is. It doesn’t matter, it follows, and how much researchers are being paid at other, competing

locations. They may receive more, or possibly less. Regardless, the standard is set within that single

organization, and people with comparable experience doing comparable work should receive similar

checks.

Seniority relative to others in the organization also provides a salary framework. Here, the

emphasis doesn’t rest so much on abilities or contribution to the organization, it’s the amount of time an

employee has been doing it that counts most. In a research lab like the one Female Science Professor is

blogging about, her assistant’s demand for a raise would be based on the idea that he should be getting

more than those hired after him, and less than those who’ve been employed longer. There’s a comforting

sense of fairness here as the wages get aligned with factors that aren’t subjective; it’s much easier to tally

an employee’s time working than to determine how much he might get paid elsewhere or measure his

exact contribution to the organization. One drawback to this approach is that it allows little room for

rewarding exceptional ability or effort. Potentially, the only reward an employee receives for working

more efficiently than others is that he gets more work to do.

This particular drawback to a seniority system for determining wages is called a perverse incentive; it’s a

system of rewards that actually encourages workers to perform poorly or inefficiently. Take the case of

American Apparel’s sewers and imagine that wages were determined solely based on the length of their

employment. Sewers would have little reason to produce more garments than their workmates. They may

even feel like their main task at work each day is to find as many ways as possible to rest and not do

anything. Why not? Their wages won’t be affected. Obviously, in most private enterprises, slackers like

these find themselves out of a job. But in sectors where firing individuals is extremely difficult—

government jobs being a prime example—a seniority system for setting wage levels threatens to

incentivize glum, nonresponsive employees.

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Finally, pay may be calibrated by the future prospects the post creates. Here, the lab assistant may

complain about low pay, but the response may be that the particular lab where he’s working is quite

prestigious, and gaining experience there will allow an advantage against other candidates when he goes

out to find employment elsewhere later on. The wages lost now, the reasoning goes, will be more than

recouped in the future.

An extreme form of this future-prospects salary structure is an internship. This is a short-term job with

little pay and few benefits. Sometimes, there’s no pay at all. The upside is the experience. When it’s added

to the résumé, it should make a job seeker more attractive to employers. If everything works, the time may

be a good investment, a good way to get into a line of work, or get in at a higher level. The ethical problem,

however, lies in the possibility of abuse that’s unavoidable when someone is working essentially for

nothing. Here’s a snippet from an entry on Craigslist:

I agree that calling work for no pay an ‘internship’ is just a fancy spin for disrespecting the

talents and the person being ‘used’. Unfortunately, in this society…many people think it’s ok to

offer no pay for legitimate work. [3]

He might be right. This complaint is definitely right if the organization offering the internship knows

beforehand that the worker’s prospects in the market won’t really be improved by the experience

acquired. In that case, it seems like an internship really is just a “fancy spin for disrespecting the talents

and the person being used.”

There are two kinds of questions to ask about a worker who’s laboring for low (or no) wages with the idea

that the experience will pay off in the long run. The first involves employers implying there’ll be improved

job prospects while knowing there probably won’t be. The other is more prudential: assuming the

employer is acting in good faith, the worker still needs to ask, “Is it worth it?” It’s impossible to know the

answer beforehand, but by making the best judgment possible you can get a grip on the question about

whether a higher wage ought to be demanded.

Conclusion. For employees trying to measure their worth in business—how much they ought to be paid for

their work—the guiding question is, “What are the criteria used to measure whether a paycheck is too fat

or too lean?” Are wages set by the market, or is it my value to the organization or something else that

determines the pay scale?

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KEY TAKEAWAY

 An appropriate salary level may simply be the result of the hardest negotiating possible, or it may be

determined by broader guidelines.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. How can an employee ethically justify inventing a job offer in order to pressure the boss into granting a

raise?

2. From the employee’s perspective, in what line of work might value to the organization function not very

well as a gauge for setting salary levels?

3. How could a company justify paying accountants in its St. Louis office less than accountants in the New

York City office?

4. From the employee’s perspective, in what line of work might experience and seniority function well as a

gauge for setting salary levels?

5. Does an employer have an ethical responsibility to offer an intern a job at full pay once the internship is

successfully completed? Why or why not?

[1] “Proposed Ethical Lapse,” Female Science Professor (blog), July 1, 2009, accessed May 17, 2011, http://scienceprofessor.

blogspot.com/2009/07/proposed-ethical- lapse.html.

[2] Nick Schou, “The Low Cost of High Wages,” American Apparel, OC Weekly, December 28, 2005, accessed May

17, 2011,http://www.americanapparel.net/presscenter/articles/20051228ocweekly.html.

[3] Craigslist San Diego, “Comments RE: internship posts& low pay,” January 5, 2010.

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6.3 Plotting a Promotion

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Distinguish two job promotion tracks.

2. Define ethical responsibilities of those seeking a job promotion.

Two Kinds of Job Promotions

Two major promotion tracks run through many organizations: one based on accomplishment, the other

on competition. Accomplishment promotions are those scheduled for workers attaining specific,

predetermined goals. For example, in an office of stockbrokers those who achieve a certain number of

clients or reach a level of total investment money under their direction may automatically be elevated.

An account executive could become a vice president of accounts after she’s gathered more than ninetynine

clients or has garnered accounts valued at more than a million dollars. Along with the new title, there

may come a pay raise and additional benefits.

The ethical questions rising around this system are fairly straightforward and tend to involve

transparency—that is, a clear explanation of the rules and rewards from the beginning. Does it count, for

instance, if a broker games the system by signing up one hundred clients who each invest only piddling

amounts? That could lead to a system where a vice president oversees one hundred clients but only $500

of assets, while a lowly account executive labors with ninety clients and $900,000 in assets.

Every industry and organization will have its quirks and ways of twisting the numbers to make things

appear better (or worse) than they really are. Keeping those angles under control is a manager’s concern,

however. Establishing a level playing field, that’s the kind of thing managers are paid to take care of, and

the dilemmas surrounding this subject, will be considered from their perspective in later chapters. From

the employee’s perspective, there aren’t many problems: if the goals are set, then you have every right to

try to meet them as best as you can to get the step up.

The stickier ethical territory comes with competitive promotions. These are situations where workers

within a group aren’t only teammates laboring to reach the organization’s goals but also competitors vying

for that one slot that comes open on the hierarchy’s next level up. In this situation, what are the ethics of

trying to get the promotion?

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Dirty Tricks

Colin Gautrey has written a book with a captivating title: 21 Dirty Tricks at Work. In a short article, he

summarizes two of the most commonly used by stealthy promotion seekers to either inflate them or

sabotage their coworker competitors.

 The creative magpie. This time-honored strategy of self-service is exaggerating involvement in

successful ideas—or flat out stealing credit for them—while steadfastly forgetting to mention others’

contributions.

 E-mail to the gods. A contemporary and clever scheme for ruining your colleagues’ advancement

chances, it entails writing an e-mail incidentally detailing a colleague’s work-related failure and

“accidentally” copying the message to supervisors and clients. [1]

The business of getting a promotion, if Gautrey’s tricks are any indication, can get pretty rough. One way

to determine what you’re willing to do is by separating and looking at each one of the ambitious worker’s

ethical responsibilities with respect to self-advancement. In broad strokes, those seeking promotion at the

cost of others in their work group are located at the center of four responsibilities: those to

 themselves,

 their coworkers,

 their managers,

 the organization in general.

The Four Responsibilities

What do ambitious employees owe themselves? Most ethical theories encourage those who desire to

advance at work to go after the success. Duty-based ethical structures, for example, include the

responsibility all of us should have to respect our own skills and dignity, and if professional excellence is

among them, then there’s a responsibility to excel, to do well at work. So if getting the promotion requires

acting to be sure superiors know when you’ve done a good job—and in competitive environments it does—

then there’s a moral imperative there to act, to ensure that credit is received. There’s no shame, in others

words, in at least discreetly blowing your own horn. Of course there’ll always be people in the workplace;

perhaps this is even the majority, whose ambitions for their lives aren’t about professional success so

much as having a fulfilling family life or pursuing an after-five interest. For these individuals, just

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avoiding the whole career advancement race—even if it means getting less money at the end of the month

than others—makes perfect sense.

What do ambitious employees owe their workmates? To begin, the same ethical framework of duties

requiring individuals to respect their own ability and dignity also demands that much for others. So while

it may be that singing your own praises and advertising your accomplishments as the creative magpie

does is respectable, it’s harder to justify obscuring the accomplishments of others. Further, if the respect

for yourself is balanced by the same respect for others, it seems like there’s an obligation to actively ensure

that superiors are aware of not only your own contributions but also those made by another. There is, in

essence, a good sportsmanship rule in effect. (And certainly, any ethics functioning from a base of respect

for ourselves and others will prohibit the outright stealing of others’ ideas and accomplishments.) On the

other hand, an ethical egoist—someone insisting that individuals are free agents and the world will work

out for the best if everyone steadfastly pursues their own interests—will see things somewhat differently.

From this point of view, the responsibility to trumpet the accomplishments of others falls to those others.

If they want to claim credit for a job well done, they may, but if they don’t, it’s no one else’s responsibility

to do it for them. Finally, what’s important to see is that there are different intermediate points between

trumpeting your own accomplishments and claiming the accomplishments of others as your own. Acting

ethically requires determining which point you’re at and justifying the stance.

The responsibilities workers hold to their superiors start with honesty. The basic problem with the

creative magpie strategy on this ethical front is that it means passing on to managers misleading or false

information about who contributed how much to a project. This affects managers negatively—

potentially very negatively—because next time something needs to get done urgently and at the highest

possible level, they may not aim the assignment at those employees most apt to produce the best results.

Their performance as a manager, it follows, will be adversely affected when the work performed under

their direction comes in at a quality level below expectations. The career prospects of a manager, finally,

will be hindered when a subordinate sacrifices honesty in the attempt to advance his or her own career.

The last responsibility that employees looking to be promoted ought to consider is their obligation to the

organization in general. Here, both the magpie strategy and the e-mail to the gods trick raise serious

questions. The worker’s central obligation to the organization is to help it flourish: they’re being paid to

help the enterprise reach its goals. The problem with the magpie strategy on this front is the same as the

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problem experienced by managers. When workers who do the best work see the credit stolen by others,

the organization loses some of its ability to produce at the highest possible level. Moving on to the e-mail

to the gods strategy (the appending of harmful information about other workers to e-mails and then

seeing that clients receive the information), this is especially damaging. Even if the information is true,

and should perhaps be shared with managers inside the organization, it’s nearly impossible to see how

any organization can benefit when clients find out the work being done is substandard.

Conclusion. For ambitious employees looking to advance quickly in a situation where they’re competing

against their own coworkers, the recipe for success is obvious: get credit for doing better work than the

others. One way to accomplish that is to actually do better work and make sure superiors know about it.

There are other ways too. Navigating the ethics of those ways requires workers to carefully evaluate their

obligations to themselves, their coworkers, their managers, and their organization.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Accomplishment promotions and competitive promotions are distinct and occur on different ethical

terrains.

 Those pursuing competitive promotions ought to consider their responsibilities to themselves, their

coworkers, their managers, and their organization.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Who is hurt by the creative magpie strategy and in what specific ways?

2. You’re working on a project with another worker and he’s not doing well. His contributions need constant

correction. Does your obligation to the organization’s well-being provide ethical justification for informing

superiors about the shortcomings? Does the ethical situation change if you’re also competing with that

workmate for a promotion? If it changes, how and why? If not, why not?

[1] Colin Gautrey, “Dirty Tricks at Work—Five Ways to Protect Yourself,” EzineArticles.com, accessed May

17, 2011, http://ezinearticles.com/?Dirty-Tricks-at- Work—Five-Ways-to-Protect-Yourself&id=2703788.

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6.4 Looking for a Better Job Outside the Company

L EARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Consider ethical dilemmas confronting employees as they move from one organization to a competitor.

Ethical Issues along the Way to a New Job

Most people who leave one job for another make the transition smoothly; they learn of a new position,

apply, interview, and win the post. Notice is provided to the current employer. The split is amicable.

Everyone goes forward. On some occasions, however, ethical turbulence occurs because obligations to the

current employer are broken along the way out. These are some of the most commonly encountered

flashpoints:

 Time abuse. The use of company time to seek another job.

 Equipment-use abuse. Using the firm’s equipment as part of the effort to find a job elsewhere.

 Skill theft. Taking specific, job-related abilities acquired at one company to another.

 Client adoption. Moving to a new company and helping it appropriate part of the former company’s

client base.

 Market adoption. Moving to a new company and helping it appropriate part of the former company’s

market.

 Idea appropriation. Taking ideas belonging to the old company to the new one.

Musical Chair Stockbrokers

Successful stockbrokers share some basic skills. One is the ability to manage reams of information about

diverse investments. The options they need to organize run from humdrum treasury bills, which are safe

investments but don’t earn very much, to stock in companies like Google, which first went on sale in 2004

at a price of $85. By 2007, that same share cost more than $600. Other start-up companies also began

selling shares in 2004, but it’s harder to remember their names since they went broke. Now it’s not the

stockbrokers’ job to determine which investments are reliable and which more explosive; that’s handled

by specialized analysts. What stockbrokers do is arrange the possibilities into clear groups of more and

less speculative investments, then they provide options to their clients.

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Talking and helping clients choose good options is another key stock broking skill. To do that, brokers

need to understand clients’ situations and aspirations. If you’re a young client with some extra cash, you

may want to take a risk. But if you’re nearing retirement, you may figure it’s best to play it safe.

Regardless, the stockbroker-client relationship tends to be fairly sticky once it’s fully established because

they’ve spent real time talking seriously: to help their broker work, clients need to open up about

themselves, their current reality, and their hopes for the future. After that, it’s difficult to just switch out of

the relationship.

How do stockbrokers make money? They get a small percentage of every investment they oversee, and the

larger brokerage firm, say, Smith Barney, gets a cut too. At least that’s the way it works on a day-to-day

basis. There is, however, another option for brokers, at least for ones who’ve accumulated a good, trusting

client list. They can switch firms for money. For a lot of money because brokerage houses fall over

themselves rushing to offer large signing bonuses to those employees who can bring a long client list with

them.

After a deal to jump to another brokerage house has been struck, the stealth begins. One way or another,

the broker needs to get his or her client files. It’s a delicate operation; computers in most brokerages don’t

have USB drives, so you can’t just pull the information off the hard drive. You’ve got to print it all out or

find some way to access the mainframe with a thumb drive. Regardless, brokers need to get those files

because they hold each client’s investment history and notes brokers use to remember their clients’

stories, their family members, and all the little things that make the personal relationship work.

With the client information in hand, the broker prepares for the nail-biting day of the actual switch. A

letter is written to clients (though not yet sent) reporting the broker’s move to the new firm, and

explaining why it’s a good change—or just not bad—for the clients’ interests. Instructions and the

necessary forms are included for clients to transfer their accounts easily and fast. The day before the

change, the letters are delivered to the central post office. The next morning, the broker resigns and

hurries out of the office. With the first step outside, she hits the call button on her cell phone. A long and

frantic day has begun: starting with the largest investor and running down the list, she telephones to

explain what’s happening, and to ask each client to stick with her through the switch.

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Back at the old office, intense damage control begins. The manager rushes to divide up the ex-worker’s

client list among the remaining brokers, and they start phoning, pleading with the clients to stay with the

old, reliable firm.

Usually, most clients go.

For the moment, that’s the end of it. But the switching will fire up again because a brokerage house that’s

lost a rainmaker may go after one of the major brokers at another house. More, a broker who’s jumped

ship once for money might be tempted to do it again. Eventually, the wheel may get going so fast that no

one can keep straight who’s working where.

Facing the possibility that the whole thing could spin out of control, the poaching brokerage houses

mutually disarmed in 2004 by drawing up a protocol for broker recruiting. The legally binding

agreement—which all employees were asked to sign—allowed brokers to take their clients’ names and

contact information when changing jobs, but nothing else, none of the investment history. That made the

switch much more difficult since office-jumping brokers would need to rebuild their client relationships

almost from scratch.

Neither Bernadette Holland nor Amy Villani wanted to do the rebuilding when they jumped from the

Smith Barney brokerage house in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, to Janney Montgomery Scott LLC of

Philadelphia in late 2008, so they took their client files with them. At least that’s what Smith Barney

maintained when they filed a lawsuit against the two women. Their complaint alleged, “The brokers took

with them customer files and information, despite their written assurances that they had complied with

the protocol for broker recruiting, which expressly prohibits them from taking such files.” [1]

Time Abuse

Time abuse is the use of company time to seek another job. On the surface, it’s unethical. We need to be

careful here, however, to distinguish exactly what “company time” means. Many jobs and work contracts

are task related instead of time defined. That is, workers are hired to accomplish certain goals. In the

construction business, a roofer may be signed up to get shingling done on a building before a certain

deadline. In a case like that, there is no such thing as company time. The roofer’s free to work whenever

and consequently to not work whenever. As long as the job gets done by the deadline, the obligation is

fulfilled. So if he wants to sit up on the roof and field calls for new jobs, it’s hard to see ethical problems.

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Problems do rise when workers are paid for their time. Most stockbrokers receive a base salary, a benefits

package, or both as part of their work agreement. In exchange, they’re supposed to use the working day to

pursue the brokerage’s interests, which means finding new clients and serving those already held. If

Holland and Villani sat in the office talking with competing brokerage houses, they were breaking their

obligation of fidelity—that is, their duty to honor their professional agreements. Of course they could

respond that all workers take breaks. They eat a snack, sneak out for a cigarette, extend lunch. All those

things are true. It’s also true, however, that the case can be made that those departures

actually help employees do their job by providing the refreshment that comes with the occasional break

from work. In the cases of Holland and Villani, it seems almost impossible for them to find a way to fold

conversations with competing brokerages into the obligation to their current one.

Could those conversations be justified even while recognizing that they breach the duty to fidelity? Yes.

The brokers could argue that another obligation simply outweighs their responsibility to maintain their

working agreement with Smith Barney. Scratching the surface a bit on the Smith Barney situation

provides an example. According to a story detailing the case in the Investment News,

Recruiters and executives from rival firms said the Smith Barney reps and advisers are

continuing to leave the firm this year as it prepares to take the minority stake in a joint venture

with Morgan Stanley, also of New York. Citigroup will exchange Smith Barney for a 49% stake in

the new firm, dubbed Morgan Stanley Smith Barney, and a $2.7 billion cash payment. [2]

Smith Barney, this means, was being taken over by Morgan Stanley, and Smith Barney brokers were

fleeing in droves.

Of course every ship-jumping broker will have unique reasons for leaving, but it does seem plausible that

at least some brokers believed this new management wouldn’t serve their interests well, and, by

extension, their clients’ interests. On this foundation, Holland and Villani could build an argument. Once

it became clear that the kind of service they’d been offering their clients would be impossible under the

new management, they could conclude that their service responsibility to clients outweighed their

responsibility to honor a commitment to Smith Barney. From there, the case may be made for the two to

use company time to pursue the possibility of working for another brokerage.

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Finally, it’s easier from an ethical perspective if the two could just isolate any discussions with potential

future brokerage houses to non-business hours, to lunch breaks, and after 5:00 p.m. If that’s not possible,

however, then the decision to impose on the working day will have to find an ethical justification.

Equipment-use abuse is occupying an employer’s computers, telephones, and similar as part of the effort

to find a job elsewhere. In the case of the two Smith Barney brokers, just as they may have used hours, so

too they may have used Smith Barney’s equipment to negotiate their moving to another firm. This isn’t a

strong form of theft (assuming Holland and Villani didn’t carry the machines out the door), but it’s a

betrayal of the obligation they received when they accepted the equipment—the obligation to use it to

serve Smith Barney’s interests. Or to at least to not subvert Smith Barney. Visiting Facebook once in a

while, in other words, is OK, but sending e-mails to competitors, not so much.

Skill Theft

Skill theft is taking specific, job-related abilities acquired at one company to another. Stock broking—like

many posts—requires extensive, job-specific training, and it can’t be picked up along the way: legally, you

can’t work in the field until you’ve completed the required courses and passed subsequent exams.

Typically, the company pays for the learning. The larger houses organize their own stock broking

universities: new recruits are gathered and privately hired teachers lead them through the materials.

What’s learned? Beyond the Wall Street knowledge about stocks and bonds, there are guidelines to master

about providing recommendations and specific rules to follow that ensure clients understand the risks

involved in creating a portfolio, especially on the more speculative side of the investment spectrum. Stock

broking is also a job in sales: brokers need to learn the delicate art of touting their own services without

making promises about returns that can’t necessarily be kept. Finally, there’s quite a bit of technical

knowledge that needs to be acquired so brokers can adeptly manage job-related and sometimes

complicated software programs. All of this is expensive. When a company hires, they’re making a major

commitment and incurring a real cost.

What obligations does the cost create? The answer divides onto a legal side and an ethical one. With

respect to the law, many hiring organizations incurring significant training costs write clauses into job

contracts protecting against the loss if a fresh employee comes aboard for the training and then tries to

leave and work elsewhere. Called a repayment clause, it stipulates that departing workers may be billed

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for their training. In a typical clause, the cost must be repaid completely if the employee leaves

immediately, and then a declining percentage are repaid if the departure occurs after three, six, nine

months, and so on. (Here’s an Internet board where workers discuss the clause and ways of getting out of

it: http://www.i-resign.com/uk/discussion/new_topic.asp?t=648. [3])

Frequently, ethics and the law fail to overlap. In this case, however, an ethical solution to the problem of

leaving an organization and taking your training with you may correspond with the strictly legal one. To

the extent it’s possible to monetize the investment an employer makes in an employee, returning the

money could satisfy several fundamental moral duties. The duty to not harm others is satisfied because

the recouped funds may be applied by the organization to hire and train another employee. The duty of

fidelity—keeping obligations—is satisfied insofar as the contract’s clauses are honored. Finally, the duty to

reparation—to repay others when we harm them—is explicitly satisfied. The conclusion is that a

stockbroker who takes a firm’s training and leaves may justifiably claim that the action was ethically

acceptable because the contractual obligation was honored.

What if the contractual obligation isn’t honored? Is there any way for an employee to build an ethical case

against repaying the company for training received? On the discussion board just mentioned, two routes

are indicated. The first works from a utilitarian ethics, from the idea that the right action is the one

bringing the greatest good to the greatest number. A contributor called there_are_many_questions

writes,

I recently took a promotion at my current job and part of this was to study a level 4 course they

had chosen. I had also applied to university, and due to the competitiveness of the course I wasn’t

sure that I would get in. Hence the reason I agreed to go for the promotion. As it happens I have

been accepted into university and I begin my course shortly. I knew that I would be required to

pay back the cost of the course fees but it turns out, that they were more then I was originally

told. To add, because I am becoming a full time student I am unlikely to have a permanent

income. [4]

So this person applied to a competitive university and wasn’t sure about getting in. Faced with the

uncertainty, he or she took a promotion at the current company, which required company-provided

training. In the end, as it turned out, there_are_many_questions got into the university and so left the

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company. Now the company wants the course fees back. As the writer notes, it’s probable that he or she

won’t be able to pay them while enrolled as a student.

Looking at this situation, there’s no doubt here that the abandoned company has a strong ethical case.

“Why is there_are_many_questions paying a university for classes when he or she already owes us for

classes taken?” Good question. Here’s a utilitarian response: when everyone’s interests are fully taken into

account, the decision to go to university and shaft the company does, in fact, serve the greater good. The

abandoned company is damaged, no doubt, but really, unless it’s a small company on the brink of

bankruptcy, it seems likely that they’ll absorb the loss and move on. Further, there_are_many_questions

had just been promoted by the company, so, obviously, he or she had been doing good work for them; it’s

not as though the entire professional relationship will be a pure loss. The jilted company, finally, will

suffer the employee’s abandonment, but probably get over it without suffering lasting damage.

There_are_many_questions, on the other hand, has a singular opportunity. The university is

competitive—so much so that there was real uncertainty about gaining admission. To leave that

opportunity behind simply to honor the clause of a contract seems like a choice causing real unhappiness,

one that will continue over the long term. There’ll always be that feeling of “what if?,” as in “What if I’d

just walked and gone to the university to learn to do what I really wanted?” In sum, when you weigh on

one side the damage caused to the company by a departing employee who doesn’t refund training costs,

and on the other side you weigh the damage done to there_are_many_questions if the university course is

abandoned to repay the company’s training, it feels like there’s an imbalance. When viewed

dispassionately from outside the situation, the greater good really is served by walking away from the debt

and going to the university. No one is saying that walking away from debts is ethical, but it would be

more unethical to let the university opportunity pass.

Another justification for walking away from the debt to the company could emerge along the lines of

ethical egoism indicated by a contribution coming from Suze. She says the employee should hand over a

bit of money and then “tell them to whistle for the rest, or else you will see them in court. I doubt they will

pursue it.” [5]

Solid ethical egoism. The right thing to do is the right thing for you, and that’s it. If you can get away with

not paying, Suze says, and then go for it. The reasoning is the company “probably won’t pursue it.” If they

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do, well then you might have to come up with the money. Until that happens, though, her advice is to

protect your own interests, let the company take care of theirs, and see where things end up.

Client Adoption

Client adoption is moving to a new company and helping it appropriate part of the former company’s

client base. Holland and Villani are perpetrators. In fact, this is the central idea behind their move: to

transfer clients along with them.

With respect to the law, Holland and Villani are completely free to take their clients. It’s a black-and-white

legal situation. All that’s in dispute is how much client information they can carry to their new office. And

the ethics? The situation here seems fairly clear also, at least with respect to the brokers and the

brokerage. There’s no doubt that both Holland and Villani on one side, and the Smith Barney brokerage

house on the other, have a certain claim on the clients. While it’s true that the brokers did most of the

work, the brokerage provided the infrastructure and opportunity. One way to adjudicate these competing

claims when the broker and brokerage split is to check whether any prior agreements regulate the

separation. In this case, an agreement does exist: the protocol for broker recruiting. The fact that the

agreement is there indicates that all parties involved accept that brokers transferring and taking clients is

part of the way things normally work: it’s fair. What needs to be settled, and what the protocol does

presumably settle, are the rules for the process.

One difference, however, between ethics and the law in this situation is that ethical considerations open a

broader scope onto the situation: the stakeholders increase. Where the law is concerned only with the

brokerage house and the brokers, an ethical evaluation incorporates the clients as important since they’re

tangibly affected by any decision. So what are the clients’ rights? How are they exposed by shifting

brokers? Their first clear right is to say “no.” They’re under no obligation to follow when a broker changes

firms, and there’s good reason to stay put. The paperwork involved in moving is significant. More, not all

houses offer the same investments instruments, so there may actually be a cost involved as items in the

portfolio are sold on one side so that a comparable product may be purchased from the new brokerage.

This means the client really loses when they move along with a broker.

The clients are in a tough spot, though. Typically, they’ve invested a good bit of their own energy and time

in fostering a broker-client trust and mutual understanding. There’s no guarantee—and this is especially

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true for longtime clients—that another broker would easily understand how the current portfolio fits

together with the client’s life. If that’s right, then any client choosing to remain with the old firm will more

or less have to start over by rebuilding their investments in consultation with whichever new stockbroker

gets assigned to their case. More complications could be added, but the point is, the clients aren’t just

bystanders. The brokers’ decision to change houses is going to affect them, and they may end up losing

either way.

How do the clients’ interests—and the ethical responsibility to consider them—fit into the stockbrokers’

job switching? One way to begin reasoning toward an answer comes from Immanuel Kant’s categorical

imperative, specifically the idea that we are to treat others as ends and never as means. Kant’s proposal is

that we’re obligated, regardless of circumstances, to not treat others as tools or instruments; treating

another as a “means” is just using them to get something else. So the question here for brokers when

considering whether they hold an ethical license to do all they can to carry clients to a new firm becomes

relatively simple. It would not be ethically recommendable if the change failed to serve the clients’

interests. If it doesn’t, if it turns out that the only people who come out ahead in all this are the brokers

because they get a nice bonus from the new brokerage house for bringing over a busload of new investors,

then what’s happening is the clients are reducing to mere means. They’re the tools the brokers use to get a

payoff for them.

On the other hand, if the change does serve the clients’ interests, then Holland and Villani can say that

they aren’t reducing the clients to nothing more than a payday, they’re actually treating the clients the way

they themselves would want to be treated in that situation. In Kant’s language, the clients become “ends,”

they’re no longer tools, and their interests can be considered a reason for Holland and Villani to make the

switch. Now, we know from the case that Smith Barney was in the process of being engulfed by Morgan

Stanley when Holland and Villani were making their move. If the brokers really believed that the services

they could provide would be harmed by the change in corporate structure as Smith Barney became

Morgan Stanley, and if they really believed their client services could be bettered by shifting over to the

new brokerage house, then there’s space for claiming that bringing the clients along is morally right.

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Market Adoption

Market adoption occurs when an employee moves from one company to another and helps the new

employer appropriate part of the former company’s market. On the surface, this resembles client

adoption. A firm’s market—the people to whom they deliver goods or services—is a collection of clients, a

set of people who pay for the company’s efforts. Even so, there are important differences between a

market and a client, and they result in radical changes to the ethical atmosphere.

The fundamental difference between a client and a market is that clients have names and markets have

definitions. Clients are individuals with whom a company has cultivated a relationship; markets are

aggregates of people at whom companies aim their products. When Holland and Villani changed

brokerage houses, they tried to take clients with them because they were people they’d really talked to;

they knew their phone numbers and life stories. A market, on the other hand, is composed of people you

don’t know; it’s just anyone who shares a set of characteristics. For example, a brokerage house may want

more business from middle-aged adults starting to think about retirement. So what do they do? They put

up TV ads showing a fiftyish husband and wife at the dinner table talking about something they’d like to

do together, say, visit China for a month. They can’t go now. They’re both working full time scraping

money to pay for the kids’ college and making mortgage payments. When they retire, though, they’ll have

the time; the kids will be done with school, the house will be paid for. What they need to do now is plan

the financial landscape. They have a question: what kind of investments guarantees their trip? The

commercial ends with a tagline: “Smith Barney: For the Journey of Your Life.” That’s a bad commercial,

but it shows what a market is. Smith Barney doesn’t care who shows up at their branch offices the next

day. They don’t care if it’s Sam Smith or Jane Jones; they just want fifty-year-olds with some money to

invest.

Many companies are constantly trying to convert markets into clients, trying to replace purely economic

relationships with personal ones because people tend to stick with their brands. Markets, by contrast,

shift easily; whichever company has the best TV commercial or the lowest prices, that’s the one that gets

the largest chunk.

Our economy is built on the idea of competition for markets: the premise that they’re open and may be

pursued by any organization is the basis for business activity. Obviously, there are islands of exception,

things like trash collection performed by the city government. But for the most part, it’s nearly impossible

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to form an ethical argument against employees leaving one company and going to another and then

chasing the same market. To be against it isn’t to be against one action or another on the part of an

employee; it’s to be against the entire economic structure in which we live. (It’s possible to be against that

structure, but that’s a different debate.)

Idea Appropriation

Idea appropriation occurs when an idea belonging to the old company is given over to the new one. If a

chemist at Coca-Cola accepts a job at Pepsi and promptly reveals Coke’s secret formula, that’s idea theft.

In the brokerage business at the level Holland and Villani worked, there probably weren’t too many

secrets to steal. Clients yes, but no shadowy formulas for stock picking or anything like that.

Higher up in Smith Barney, however, it’s perfectly possible that analysts responsible for selecting stock

winners (and weeding out losers) had developed an algorithm, a kind of recipe of numbers to produce

answers. In the finance industry, those who rely on numbers—share price, a company’s annual earnings,

and so on—to make stock predictions are called quants, which is short for quantitative data analyst. They

take these numbers, stick them into a secret mathematical formula, and out pops another number

presumably showing whether the stock is a good buy or not. These formulas are a brokerage’s concealed

idea and, presumably at least, a key to their success: clients are going to flock to those brokerages

consistently providing good stock-buying tips. Now if you happen to be a quant at Smith Barney, and

you’re offered a similar position at a competing firm, can you take the formula with you?

This is a knotted question, both legally and ethically. Starting with the law, a company’s ideas are broadly

divided into two categories: trade secrets and patented or copyrighted information. Trade secrets consist

of nonpublic information that

 concerns a company’s own activities and that if known by competitors would negatively affect the

company’s ability to compete against them;

 is owned by the company (though it may not be copyrighted or patented) because it was developed by the

company or purchased from another company;

 is meant to remain secret as is made clear by explicit directives, security measures, or contractual

agreements with employees. [6]

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Trade secrets (which are sometimes called proprietary data) are ideas a company develops and uses, and

that they don’t want anyone to know about. In the case of the quants at Smith Barney, a formula for

picking stock winners kept under lock and key would be a trade secret.

The other broad category of ideas belonging to companies is patented or copyrighted information. This is

more or less a trade secret but without the secret. It’s an idea a company develops that helps it compete,

but the strategy for protecting the idea from competitors is different. Instead of pretending like the idea

doesn’t exist, or doing everything possible to make sure the details don’t leak, what the company does is

make the idea public by registering it with the government, claiming thereafter the sole right to use the

idea. After registration, the idea’s no longer a secret, but that doesn’t matter since anyone else who tries to

use it is vulnerable to being sued.

So the recipe for Coke is a trade secret but not patented. If you can figure out what it is, you’re free to use

it. The word Coke, on the other hand, is copyrighted. Everyone knows what it is, but you’re not allowed to

use it, or at least not use it to label your own soft drink. The result of all this for an employee switching

companies is that the legal questions involving stolen ideas tend to involve trade secrets. You can’t steal

an idea that’s copyrighted because everyone knows that idea already. But a trade secret—the recipe for

Coke, the formula an investment house like Smith Barney uses to pick stocks—that definitely can be

stolen; it can be revealed to the new company.

The Economic Espionage Act of 1996 makes the theft of trade secrets a federal crime. The law is clear on

the issue. The problem is it’s hard to prove that a trade secret is stolen. If you steal the recipe for Coke,

you might disguise the theft by adding a tad more sugar to the version you make. Or, if you steal one of

Smith Barney’s quantitative stock-picking formulas, maybe you adjust the numbers slightly: not so much

that it effects the predictions, but enough to make the formula different. In these cases it’s going to be

hard to absolutely prove the formula is stolen. In broad strokes, finally, the law of intellectual property is

clear. When you get down into specific cases, however, things rapidly get twisted.

What are the ethics? If you’re a quant at Smith Barney and you get a call from your broker friends—

Holland and Villani—saying that they’re taking their clients to a new firm and they’d like you to come

along, bringing Smith Barney’s secret formula for stock picking as well, what kind of ethical responses are

possible?

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The “no” response is easily justified on moral grounds. The trade secret is company property, really no

different from a computer or a desk, and taking it—even if you’re taking it by memorizing it and carrying

it out in your mind—is theft just like stealing objects. Further support for the no answer comes from the

responsibility to fidelity, the responsibility to maintain agreements. Almost all companies that work with

trade secrets write a clause into employment contracts stipulating confidentiality on sensitive matters. So

the ethical obligations not to steal, and to keep our word, make a good case for declining the request to

steal an idea.

Going the other way, some situations allow a reasonable argument to be mounted in favor of leaving with

the trade secret or proprietary data. One justification is authorship. Someone who provides a company

with an invention can fairly expect to be rewarded by the company. Inventing an idea is labor like any

other, and in any field people who do exemplary work can expect promotions and rewards from the larger

organization. If, unfortunately, an inventor feels as though the company isn’t providing a reward—a

promotion, a healthy bonus, or similar—then he or she may feel justified in leaving with his or her work,

just as a good accountant may feel the need to look for employment elsewhere after being repeatedly

passed over for promotion. The basic argument here is one of fairness. If a quant at Smith Barney invents

an algorithm for stock picking that produces excellent results and then sits by and watches others who’ve

contributed less receive larger year-end bonuses, the conclusion may be reached that for balance to be

restored, it’s necessary to take the algorithm to another firm where a reward will be guaranteed.

Another ethical argument could be located in the difficulty that may exist in separating the skills an

employee gains on the job from an idea or a certain kind of knowledge developed on the job. A quant who

figures out a good algorithm may be able to claim that, as a skilled manipulator of numbers as they relate

to economic markets, his ability as an analyst allows him to take the strategy with him. Stated differently,

because of the unique skills possessed, when the quant is hired for a new brokerage, he would be able to

just reinvent the algorithm. That’s possible because of the rare analytic talents the quant possesses, not

because the old algorithm is being stolen. In general, it can be very difficult to separate skills as they relate

to ideas from the ideas themselves. And in this case, it may be that the quant’s skills provide a license to

regenerate the stock-picking algorithm for whatever firm is paying the salary.

Finally, an ethical case for the revelation of a trade secret may be made on humanitarian grounds. It’s

difficult to envision a good example of this is in the world of stock picking, but in the no-less-lucrative

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field of medical research, a humanitarian context for taking an idea easily comes into focus. If a cure for

cancer were invented by a private company, the stock value would blow through the roof, but only if they

kept the drug formula secret and sold the serum at a fairly high price. In this case, a worker in the

company may feel justified in taking a job with an international health nonprofit, and then revealing the

serum’s formula and the technique for its production so that it could be made and distributed at a low cost

to all those in need throughout the world. A theft would be committed and a wrong done, but an

obligation to the greater good, to the health benefits the theft would allow, may justify a departing

worker’s carrying a company’s secret out the door.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Using time and equipment paid for by a current employer to look for a new job is ethically problematic.

 Job skills provided by employers may create employee obligations.

 Employees transferring from one company to another—and asking established clients to follow—face a

broad range of ethical concerns.

 Ideas belonging to an organization may not be taken to another without raising ethical concerns.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. Ethically, is there a difference between a worker sitting at her desk during office hours and working on her

Facebook page and one who’s trolling Monster, looking to find a new job somewhere else? If not, why

not? If so, what’s the difference?

2. If a company pays for your job training, is there a way to calculate how long you need to work there to

satisfy the obligation to use the training for the company’s benefit?

3. In business terms, what’s the difference between trying to steal clients from your old employer and trying

to steal market share? In ethical terms, what’s the difference?

4. What’s the difference between a trade secret and a patented idea?

[1] Bruce Kelly, “Smith Barney Seeks Restraining Orders against Four Ex-Reps,” investmentnews.com, accessed

May 17, 2011.http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20090224/REG/902249971.

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[2] Bruce Kelly, “Smith Barney Seeks Restraining Orders against Four Ex-Reps,” investmentnews.com, accessed

May 17, 2011.http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20090224/REG/902249971.

[3] “Repayment of Course Fees,” I-resign.com, accessed May 17, 2011, http://www.iresign.

com/uk/discussion/new_topic.asp?t=648.

[4] There_are_many_questions, April 4, 2009 (4:26 p.m.), “Repayment of Course Fees,” I-resign.com, accessed May

17, 2011, http://www.i-resign.com/uk/discussion/new_topic.asp?t=648.

[5] Suze, January 6, 2005 (5:42 p.m.), comment to bradley, “Repayment of Course Fees,” I-resign.com, accessed

May 17, 2011, http://www.i-resign.com/uk/discussion/new_topic.asp?t=648.

[6] Manuel Velasquez, Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases 6th Edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006),

357. List adapted for this text.

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6.5 Take This Job and…

L EARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Define and consider ethical issues surrounding the decision to quit.

The Ethics of Quitting

There’s a difference between giving a few weeks’ notice that you’ve decided to leave your job in cold

Minneapolis to try your luck in Florida, and suddenly walking out three days before the year’s most

important presentation, the one your team was responsible for creating. The first scenario won’t cause

many objections, but the second raises this question: what do departing workers owe employers?

If the answer is sought through a prism of fairness—through the idea that justice in the workplace

requires equal treatment all around—the answer might be “not very much.” Since most work contracts

offer employment only at will, employers are typically positioned to let workers go at any time for any

reason that’s convenient. And they do.

When Ameritech was letting people go they would call them into a conference room and say their

services were no longer needed. They would then show them to the door. Any coats or personal

effects left at their desk would be shipped to them. [1]

Especially in larger organizations where layoffs can come massively, the employee’s pleading, “You

shouldn’t fire me because we just bought a house and had our first child,” isn’t going to persuade too

many CEOs. If it doesn’t, it’s going to be difficult to justify the demand that employees, no matter how

vital they may be to the company, come in to work when they plainly don’t want to.

It’s also true, however, that many employers extend benefits going beyond contractual obligations, and

yes, some bend over backward to keep their workers on, even when it doesn’t make strict business sense.

When Malden Mills burned to the ground, owner Aaron Feuerstein spent millions keeping all three

thousand employees on the payroll with full benefits for months. Some asked whether he was a

fool. [2] Maybe he was, but he proves that every situation is different: some employers are cutthroats,

others doggedly loyal when it comes to the people doing the work.

This is the important point for anyone thinking about leaving their organization in a lurch. If the ethical

justification for splitting is built on the idea of fairness—which in this case reduces to the principle that

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the employee owes the organization the same loyalty that the organization displays for the employee—

then it’s the worker’s responsibility to ask how the organization responds to employees’ needs.

It should be underlined that this ethical attitude isn’t quite a form of turnabout is fair play: the argument

isn’t so much that if a company has screwed (or not) people in the past, then they should get screwed (or

not) now. The argument from fairness is simply that the weight of self-interest when set against the

interests on the other side should be more or less balanced.

A different framework for considering the question of walking out on a job virtually without warning

comes from the utilitarian perspective, from the idea that in any situation the morally right act is the one

increasing happiness for all those involved. Looking at the question this way, workers considering leaving

need to weigh their benefit from walking out against the suffering incurred by everyone else.

The “everyone else” includes the worker’s fellow employees. If a presentation really does need to be done

and given in three days and you disappear, there’s just not going to be time to hire someone else and get

them up to speed; those who are already there and on the project are going to have to do your share. It’s

worth noting here that the concern about whether the company has previously demonstrated loyalty to its

workers doesn’t arise within this perspective. What matters is a calculation of what serves everyone’s best

interest now and going forward. So even if you feel no loyalty to the company—and even if the company

demonstrates no loyalty to its employees—you may still decide to stay on until a more convenient

separation time can be found just so that you don’t wrong those who work with you.

%$&^*#!

Everyone who’s ever worked anywhere has felt the temptation at one point or another to not just quit but

to go out in flames: march into the boss’s office, let loose an avalanche of %$&^*#!, and storm out. It

would feel good. But should it leave you feeling guilty afterward? Within a utilitarian scheme, the answer

is “maybe not.” If ethical justification is based on the idea that the right path is the one bringing the

greatest good to the greatest number, then it might just be that the release and clean break the outburst

allows is worth the scene and the discomfort (or maybe the private joy) others feel about the whole thing.

Of course, by the same reasoning, anyone standing outside that door and taking one last breath before

storming through better consider their own long-term happiness. Probably, bawling out the boss isn’t

going to help your future job-seeking prospects.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Most ethical issues surrounding the quitting of a job gather around those cases where the leaving is

abrupt.

 The ethics of leaving a job involves a range of people and their interests.

REVIEW QUE STIONS

1. If you feel as though you’ve been mistreated at work, can an ethical justification be formed for walking

away at a moment of maximum pain for the company? Explain.

2. Can you think of a kind of job or line of work where any employee could walk off at any time without

ethical qualms? What characteristics of the job allow that freedom?

[1] James Carlini, “Ready to Leave? Why You Shouldn’t Give Two Weeks’ Notice,” WTN News, April 27, 2005,

accessed May 17, 2011, http://wistechnology.com/articles/1757.

[2] “Malden Mills: A Study in Leadership,” Organizational Productivity Institute, Inc. ,Quality Monitor Newsletter,

October 1996, accessed May 17, 2011, http://www.opi-inc.com/malden.htm.

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6.6 Case Studies

Cooking a Résumé

Source: Photo courtesy of cloudsoup, http://www.flickr.com/photos/cloudsoup/2762796137/.

Chef Robert Irvine’s résumé was impressive. According to the St. Petersburg Times, he advertised his

experience as including:

 A bachelor’s of science degree in food and nutrition from the University of Leeds.

 Royal experience working on the wedding cake for Prince Charles and Princess Diana.

 He was a knight, as in Sir Robert Irvine, Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, handpicked by

the Queen.

 For several consecutive years, he’d received the Five Star Diamond Award from the American Academy of

Hospitality Sciences.

 He’d served as a White House chef.

The truth—when the newspaper revealed it on a splashy front-page article—wasn’t quite so overpowering:

 The claimed BS degree? According to a press officer at the University of Leeds, “We cannot find any

connection in our records between Robert and the university.”

 The royal wedding cake? Well, he did help pick some of the fruit that went into it.

 The knighthood? No.

 The Five Star Diamond Award? True, but it’s not the AAA’s prestigious Five Diamond Award or Mobil’s

five stars. The American Academy of Hospitality Sciences is actually a guy’s apartment in New York, and

the award is granted to anyone who pays a fee.

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 White House chef? Kind of. But he didn’t prepare sophisticated dishes for the president or anything like

that; he cooked food for the cafeteria line, serving military workers at the White House. [1]

After the truth came out, Chef Irvine was fired from his popular TV show on the Food Network, Dinner:

Impossible. A few months later, however, after the scandal blew over and he’d corrected his résumé, he

reapplied for his old job, was rehired, and he’s on TV today.

QUE STIONS

1. When Irvine first applied for the job as TV show chef, he had to consider whether he should “embellish”

his résumé, and if so, how far he should go. What ethical responsibilities should he have considered? To

whom?

2. The five types of positive résumé misrepresentations are

o false credentials,

o false experience,

o false chronology,

o embellished experience,

o false references.

Negative résumé misrepresentations have also been discussed. Looking back at Irvine’s résumé

adventure, can you label each of his transgressions?

3. Are some of the lies worse than others in the sense that they relate directly to his ability to be a successful

TV chef? Are others less objectionable because they don’t relate to the job he was applying for? Why or

why not?

4. It’s better to seek forgiveness than ask permission. In a sense, that’s what Irvine did. He lied on his résumé,

got the job, did well, got caught having lied on the résumé, got fired, sought forgiveness, got it, and got

back a TV show job he might never have received had he not lied in the first place. Ethically, how could

you go about justifying his course of action?

5. The Internet site Fakeresume.com includes the following advice for job seekers: “Hiring Managers

Think You’re Lying Anyway!! Yep that’s right, the majority of human resources managers assume

that EVERYONE embellishes, exaggerates, puffs up and basically lies to some extent on your

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résumé. So if you’re being totally honest you’re being penalized because they’re going to assume

that you embellished your résumé to a certain extent!” [2]

Assume you believe this is true; can you make the ethical case for being honest on your résumé

regardless of what hiring managers think?

6. Assume Fakeresume.com is right. Everyone “embellishes, exaggerates, puffs up and basically lies to some

extent on their résumé.” On the basis of the obligations you hold to others (hiring managers, coworkers,

and other applicants) and to yourself, could you form the argument that you have an ethical responsibility

to lie?

7. You have a friend you like and respect. You’ve spent a lot of time with him over the years in school and

you know he’s very responsible, a hard worker, and smart. He’d be good at almost any entry-level type

job; you’re sure of it. He comes to you and asks you to fake having been his boss for a pizza delivery

business. “I just want,” he says, “someone out there who I can count on to say I’m the good, responsible

type. You know someone who’s always on time for work, that kind of thing.” Would you do it? Justify your

answer.

Inmate Wages

Source: Photo courtesy of Tomáš Obšívač, http://www.flickr.com/photos/toob/38893762/.

An Internet posting carries a simple Q&A thread: someone’s searching for a good upholstery shop in

Maryland. An unexpected answer comes back from Fenny L: criminals. A local jail has a job-training

program for their inmates and they contract the men at $1.50 per hour. [3]

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The responses to the suggestion are intense and all over the place, but many circle around the ethics of the

numbingly low wage, leading Fenny L to introduce a new thread. Here are the three main points she

makes.

 While I object to slave labor…at the same time, I don’t see this as slave labor. If I wished to become a

professional uhhh…upholsterer (what do they call themselves?!?) I would need to spend money on the

classes and etc. The Dept. of Corrections doesn’t charge the inmates for these classes—thusly; I don’t see a

problem with only paying the inmates $1.50 for their work.

 Also, we use free/cheap labor ALL the time…in the form of Interns. Interns are often paid nothing, or

extremely little—because they want the job experience…that is their compensation. In turn, I feel that the

inmates are getting job experience so that they can earn an honest living once they get out.

 Finally, I think that the Dept. of Corrections has to make the wages obscenely low—because let’s be

honest…how many people would feel comfortable with having a convict in their home to do work? The

only way they can be competitive and offer the inmates this opportunity, is to make it worth the consumer

to utilize them—by having obscenely low wages. [4]

QUE STIONS

1. Suppose you made a mistake and ended up in jail for a few months. While there, you participated

in this program. Now you’re out and seeking an upholstering job.

o You’re considering leaving the jail part of this episode off your résumé. Whose interests should

you consider before going ahead? What ethical case could you make for leaving it off your

résumé?

o Given the kind of work you’d be doing—going into peoples’ homes and upholstering—does the

nature of your “mistake” (drunk driving versus shoplifting, for example) influence the ethical

consideration of whether you ought to acknowledge this part of your life on your résumé? How?

o Maybe for the first several years you should leave your prison training on your résumé, but is

there a kind of statute of limitations, a certain amount of time that, once passed, gives you an

ethical license to leave something negative off your résumé? How would you calculate the

amount of time and based on what factors?

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2. Sometimes a split opens between a community-wage level (what people in general in a certain

place are paid for certain labor) and an organizational-wage level (what people at a specific

organization are paid for the same labor). The split clearly opens here; the prisoners are paid

much less than other upholsterers in the larger community.

o Fenny L believes this split is justified by the ethics of a market economy. She makes the point that

most people really don’t want crooks wandering around their house, so in order to get business;

the prison needs to make its offer attractive by cutting labor prices. She’s probably right in terms

of economics, but in terms of ethics, do you find this reasoning convincing? Why or why not?

o Can you form an ethical argument in favor of the prisoners demanding a pay raise to make their

salary comparable with other upholsterers?

3. If you were an upholsterer and your company had a practice of hiring ex-convicts because they’d work for

lower wages, could you make the ethical argument that you deserve a higher wage than those other

workers with similar experience and skills because you’d never had trouble with the law? What would

your argument look like?

4. If you were an upholsterer looking to wiggle a pay hike, would you ask a friend to pose as the boss from a

competing outfit and offer you the same job at a higher salary? In considering the question, what are the

specific ethical obligations tugging one way or the other, and to whom do you have the obligations?

5. Fenny L. believes the workers are receiving a fair wage because they’re getting valuable training

and experience that will improve their future job prospects. That’s probably true, but the fact

remains that the workers are being paid much less money, for the same work, than others.

o Is an internship—or any post where you receive less than the community-wage level for a certain

kind of work—a humiliation? Why or why not?

o Is there an ethical objection to allowing you to be humiliated? Explain.

6. Many jobs require company-sponsored training, and frequently employees enrolling in corporate training

programs sign repayment clauses, promising to repay the training’s cost if they leave before a certain

amount of time has passed, say, one year. Is there an ethical argument here for the idea that repayment

clauses are a form of prison and therefore unethical? Why or why not?

7. Upholstering is not a job where experience counts very much. Yes you need some initial training and

practice, but once you’ve got that, ten years more experience isn’t going to make you a significantly better

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upholsterer of common items. Accepting that reality, if you were the upholsterer who’d been with the

company the longest, could you still translate your seniority into an ethical argument that you deserve a

higher wage than others who’ve been around less time? Explain.

Dirty Tricks

Source: Photo courtesy of Henk de Vries, http://www.flickr.com/photos/henkdevries/2662269430/.

In his book 21 Dirty Tricks at Work, author Colin Gautrey gives his readers a taste of how intense life at

the office can get. Here are two of his favorite tricks. [5]

QUE STIONS

1. The exposure trick. Coercing a coworker by threatening to make public a professional or personal

problem

If you’re angling for a raise, and you know something damaging about your supervisor, you may

be tempted by the tactic of exposure. Imagine you know that your supervisor has a prescription

drug habit and it’s getting worse. Her performance at the office has been imbalanced but not so

erratic as to raise suspicions. You plan to confront her and say you’ll spill the beans unless she gets

you a raise. Whose interests are involved here? What responsibilities do you have to each of

them? What ethical justification could you draw up to justify your threat?

2. The bystander trick. Knowing that someone is in trouble but standing on the sidelines and doing

nothing even when intervention is clearly appropriate and would be helpful to the business

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At an upholstering company you’re in competition for a promotion with a guy who learned the

craft in jail, through the Department of Corrections’ job-training course. He hadn’t revealed that

fact to anyone, but now the truth has come to light. You’ve worked with him on a lot of

assignments and seen that he’s had a chance to make off with some decent jewelry but hasn’t

taken anything. You could speak up to defend him, but you’re tempted to use the bystander trick

to increase the odds that you’ll win the duel. What ethical argument could you draw up to

convince yourself that you shouldn’t stand there and watch, but instead you should help your

adversary out of the jam?

The End of Destiny’s Child

Source: Photo courtesy of Alex Johnson, http://www.flickr.com/photos/89934978@N00/2997961865/.

The R&B group Destiny’s Child was composed of Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland, and Michelle

Williams. They started slow in 1990 (Beyoncé was nine), giving mini-concerts in crumbling dance halls

around Houston, and then kept at it through small-time talent shows, promised record deals that never

materialized, and the disintegration of Rowland’s family (Beyoncé’s parents took her into their home).

They finally got a crummy but real record deal in 1998 and made the most of it.

By 2002 they’d become a successful singing and dance act. But soon after, they broke up under the

pressure of Beyoncé’s solo career, which seemed to be speeding even faster than the group effort.

In 2004 they reunited for a new album, Destiny Fulfilled, which went triple platinum. On the European

leg of the subsequent world tour, Beyoncé quit more definitively. She took the fan base with her and began

evolving into the hugely successful Beyoncé we know now: pop music juggernaut, movie celebrity,

clothing design star…The other two members of the original group? Today they appear on B-list talk

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shows (when they can get booked) and are presented to viewers as Kelly Rowland, formerly of Destiny’s

Child, and Michelle Williams, formerly of Destiny’s Child.

According to the New York Times it shouldn’t be surprising that things ended up this way: “It’s been a

long-held belief in the music industry that Destiny’s Child was little more than a launching pad for

Beyoncé Knowles’s inevitable solo career.” [6]

Which leads to this question: Why did she go back in 2004 and do the Destiny Fulfilled album with her

old partners? Here’s what the New York Times reported: “Margeaux Watson, arts and entertainment

editor at Suede, a fashion magazine, suggests that the star does not want to appear disloyal to her former

partners, and called Beyoncé’s decision to return to the group a charitable one.” But “from Day 1, it’s

always been about Beyoncé,” Ms. Watson said. “She’s the one you can’t take your eyes off of; no one really

cares about the other girls. I think Beyoncé will eventually realize that these girls are throwing dust on her

shine.” [7]

QUE STIONS

1. Destiny’s Child rolled money in, and it needed to be divided up. Assume the three singers always

split money equally, going way back to 1990 when it wasn’t the profits they were dividing but the

costs of gasoline and hotel rooms, which added up to more than they got paid for performing.

About the money that finally started coming in faster than it was going out, here are two common

theories for justifying the payment of salaries within an organization: Money is apportioned

according to the worker’s value to the organization, and money is apportioned according to the

experience and seniority relative to others in the organization.

o How would these two distinct ways of divvying up the revenue change the salary assigned to the

three singers?

o When success came, how could Beyoncé ethically justify demanding a greater share of the pie?

o How could you justify experience and seniority as the ethically preferable route to follow when

paying the three singers making up Destiny’s Child?

2. There are a lot of rhythm and blues groups out there, singing as hard as they can most nights on

grimy stages for almost no audience, which means the organizational-wage level of Destiny’s Child

was way, way above the wage level of other organizations in the same line of work.

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o When the members of Destiny’s Child cash their paychecks, should they feel guilty about getting

so much more than others in their profession who work just as hard as they do, but in different

organizations where the pay is less? Why or why not?

o Cashiers at Whole Foods Market get paid more than cashiers at Wal-Mart. Should the Whole

Foods cashiers feel guilty? Why or why not?

3. Beyoncé didn’t break clean from Destiny’s Child. She rejoined the organization because, according to

Watson, “she didn’t want to appear disloyal to her former partners.” Beyoncé felt an ethical responsibility

to mind the interests of Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams. As she thought about leaving the group

more definitively, what other people (if any) do you suppose she should have considered in order feeling

ethically justified in finally and permanently taking off on her own? What are the obligations she holds to

Rowland, Williams, and any others you have added to the list?

4. Destiny’s Child was a pop group; their hits included “Say My Name,” which isn’t too different from

Beyoncé’s smash “Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It).” The videos are pretty close, too: nearly

identical mixes of rhythm, dancing, fun, and sexy provocation. After comparing the video of “Say

My Name” [8] with “Single Ladies,” [9] it’s hard to deny that Beyoncé benefited from her time in

Destiny’s Child. Very possibly, she feels as though she owes Rowland and Williams part of her

success, and that’s why she did the reunion record and tour. Now, if you were Rowland or

Williams, could you form an ethical argument that Beyoncé owes you more than that based on

the following:

o Client appropriation. When Beyoncé left, she benefited from a group of devoted listeners

constructed by Destiny’s Child. Do you suppose these would be clients, a market, or some mix?

How do you imagine Beyoncé benefited from them and what should she do to repay the

obligation?

o Skill theft. When Beyoncé left, Destiny’s Child still had gas in its engine: the group was selling CDs

and touring successfully. It could do that because of the skills the three members learned years

earlier through tireless rehearsals and small-time concerts. During all those years they were

training for musical success, but when they got it, Beyoncé quickly left the organization. She went

out on her own and kept doing what she’d learned to do with Rowland and Williams. Given that,

use an ethical theory to make the case that Beyoncé is significantly obligated to the other two.

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What is her obligation? Is there some point—either after a certain amount of time has passed or

an amount of money has been paid or something else—where the obligation will have been

satisfied? Explain.

Stolen Intel

Source: Photo courtesy of ctitze, http://www.flickr.com/photos/ctitze/329928527/.

Biswamohan Pani, a low-level engineer at Intel, apparently stole trade secrets worth a billion dollars from

the company.

His plot was simple. According to a Business week article, he scheduled his resignation from Intel for

June 11, 2008. He’d accumulated vacation time, however, so he wasn’t actually in the office during June,

even though he officially remained an employee. That employee status allowed him access to Intel’s

computer network and sensitive information about next-generation microprocessor prototypes. He

downloaded the files, and he did it from his new desk at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), which is Intel’s

chief rival. Pani had simply arranged to begin his new AMD job while officially on vacation from Intel.

Why did he do it? The article speculates that “Pani obtained Intel’s trade secrets to benefit himself in his

work at AMD without AMD’s knowledge that he was doing so, which is a fairly frequent impulse among

employees changing jobs: to take a bit of work product from their old job with them.”[10]

According to Nick Akerman, a New York lawyer who specializes in trade secret cases, “It’s amazing how

poorly most companies [protect their trade secrets].” [11]

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After being caught, Pani faced charges in federal court for trade secret theft, with a possible prison term of

ten years. He pleaded innocent, maintaining that he downloaded the material for his wife to use. She was

an Intel employee at the time and had no plans to leave.

QUE STIONS

1. Can the fact that Pani got the information so easily be used to build an ethical case that what he did

wasn’t wrong? If not, why not? If so, what does the case look like?

2. Ethically, does it matter whether Pani was a key author of the taken documents? Why or why not?

3. According to the article, a lot of people do what Pani did. Is that a justification for his action? Explain.

4. Did Pani have a responsibility to formally end his employment status with Intel before joining AMD, or is it

OK for him to be vacationing from Intel while working at AMD? Whose interests need to be considered to

answer this question thoroughly?

5. As James Carlini, a professor at Northwestern University, points out in an essay, [12] it is accepted wisdom

in the world of business ethics that employees leaving a company ought to provide two-week’ notice to

employers. Use the Pani case to make the argument that employees should notify employers that they’re

leaving only at the last moment.

6. Pani left Intel after receiving a poor job review. Probably he was mad about that. From a utilitarian

perspective—one that defines the ethical good as the greatest good for the greatest number over the long

haul—would Pani have acted more ethically had he stormed into his boss’s office and screamed at the guy

and quit instead of biting his tongue, getting a job elsewhere, and doing what he did? Explain.

[1] Ben Montgomery, “TV Chef Spiced Up His Past Exploits,” St. Petersburg Times, February 17, 2008, accessed May

17, 2011,http://www.sptimes.com/2008/02/17/Southpinellas/TV_chef_spiced_up_his.shtml.

[2] Fakeresume.com accessed May 17, 2011, http://fakeresume.com.

[3] Fenny L., April 7, 2009, “Searching for good upholstery shop in MD,” accessed May 17,

2011, http://www.yelp.com/topic/gaithersburg-searching-for-good-upholstery- shop-in-md.

[4] Fenny L., April 17, 2009, “Ethics of Inmate Wages,” accessed May 17,

2011,http://www.yelp.com/topic/washington-ethics-of-inmate-wages.

[5] “21 Dirty Tricks,” The Gautrey Group, accessed May 17, 2011,http://www.siccg.com/fre/DirtyTricks.php.

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[6] Lola Ogunnaike, “Beyoncé’s Second Date with Destiny’s Child,” New York Times, November 14, 2004, accessed

May 17, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/14/arts/music/14ogun.html?_r=1.

[7] Lola Ogunnaike, “Beyoncé’s Second Date with Destiny’s Child,” New York Times, November 14, 2004, accessed

May 17, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/14/arts/music/14ogun.html?_r=1.

[8] “Destiny’s Child—Say My Name,” YouTube video, 4:00, posted by “DestinysChildVEVO,” October 25,

2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQgd6MccwZc.

[9] “Beyoncé—Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It),” YouTube video, 3:19, posted by “beyonceVEVO,” October 2,

2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4m1EFMoRFvY.

[10] Michael Orey, “Lessons from Intel’s Trade-Secret Case,” Bloomberg Businessweek, November 18, 2008,

accessed May 17,

2011,http://www.businessweek.com/print/technology/content/nov2008/tc20081118_067329.htm.

[11] Michael Orey, “Lessons from Intel’s Trade-Secret Case,” Bloomberg Businessweek, November 18, 2008,

accessed May 17,

2011,http://www.businessweek.com/print/technology/content/nov2008/tc20081118_067329.htm.

[12] James Carlini, “Ready to Leave? Why You Shouldn’t Give Two Weeks’ Notice,” WTN News, April 27, 2005,

accessed May 17, 2011, http://wistechnology.com/articles/1757.

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Chapter 7

Employee’s Ethics: Making the Best of the Job You

Have as You Get from 9 to 5

Chapter Overview

Chapter 7 “Employee’s Ethics: Making the Best of the Job You Have as You Get from 9 to 5” examines

some ethical decisions facing employees. It considers the values guiding choices made over the course of a

workday.

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7.1 Taking Advantage of the Advantages: Gifts, Bribes, and

Kickbacks

L EARNING OBJECTIVE S

1. Define a conflict of interest.

2. Show how gifts in the business world may create conflicts of interest.

3. Delineate standard practices for dealing with gifts.

4. Consider how receiving gifts connected with work may be managed ethically.

5. Define bribes and kickbacks in relation to gifts.

6. Show how the ethics of bribes and kickbacks can be managed inside the ethics of gifts.

Living the High Life

If you’re young, looking for work, and headed toward a big city (especially New York), then you could do a

lot worse than landing a job as a media buyer for an advertising agency. According to an article in New

York magazine, it’s working out well for twenty-four-year-old Chris Foreman, and it’s working out despite

a salary so measly that he can’t afford his own place, a ticket to a movie, or even to add meat to his

homemade spaghetti. [1]

This is what makes the job click for Foreman: as a media buyer, he oversees where big companies like

AT&T place their advertisements. And because those ads mean serious money—a full page in a glossy,

top-flight magazine costs about five times what Foreman earns in a year—the magazines line up to throw

the good life at him. Thanks to the generosity of Forbes magazine, for example, Foreman spends the

occasional evening on the company’s vast Highlander yacht; he drinks alcohol almost as old as he is,

munches exquisite hors d’oeuvres, and issues orders to white-suited waiters. While guests arrive and

depart by helicopter, Foreman hobnobs with people the rest of us see only on movie screens. A scan of the

Highlander guest book turns up not just celebrities but serious power too: Margaret Thatcher was a guest

once.

A night on the Highlander is a good one, but it’s far from the only event lighting up Foreman’s glitzy life. A

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expenses-paid ski weekend (worth almost $1,000, in Foreman’s estimation); tickets to see Serena

Williams at the US Open ($75 each); invites to the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue party, where he

chatted with Heidi Klum and Rebecca Romijn-Stamos; prime seats for sold-out Bruce Springsteen

concerts ($500 each); dinners at Cité, Sparks, Il Mulino, Maloney & Porcelli, and Monkey Bar, to name a

few of his favorites ($100 a pop).

Foreman observes the irony of his life: “It’s kind of crazy, I had dinner at Nobu on Monday [the kind of

restaurant few can afford, even if they’re able to get a reservation], but I don’t have enough money to buy

socks.” [2]

The Highlander’s spectacularly wealthy owner is Steve Forbes. If he invites former British Prime Minister

Margaret Thatcher aboard for a holiday weekend, you can understand why: she’s not just an interesting

person; she’s living history. Serena Williams would be an interesting guest, too, in her way. The same goes

for Heidi Klum and Ms. Romijn-Stamos, in a different way. What they all have in common, though, is that

you know exactly what they’ve got, and why a guy with a big bank account would treat them to an evening.

But what, exactly, does Mr. Forbes expect to get in return for inviting media buyer Chris Foreman? The

answer: “We media buyers are the gatekeepers—no one at AT&T actually purchases the ads. If at the end

of a buying cycle, your budget has an extra $200,000, you’ll throw it back to the person who treated you

best.” [3]

The answer, in a word, is money.

What’s Wrong with Gifts and Entertainment?

The fundamental problem with the gifts Foreman received and the free entertainment he enjoyed is that

they create a conflict of interest, a conflict between professional obligations and personal welfare. As a

paid media buyer, it’s Foreman’s job and obligation to buy ads in the magazines that will do his clients the

most good, that’ll deliver the biggest bang for the buck. But against that, as a single twenty-four-year-old

guy in New York City, it’s in his personal interest to purchase ads in Forbes magazine since that probably

gets him invited back to the Highlander with its free drinks, exquisite dinners, and, if he’s lucky, some face

time with women he’s already seen quite a bit of in Sports Illustrated. This is a tough spot, and there are

two broad ways it can play out:

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1. Foreman can do the parties at night, go home, sleep, wake up with a clear head, and buy the best ads for

his client. Let’s say the advertising money he’s spending belongs to AT&T and they’re trying to attract new

clients in the forty-five to fifty-five demographic of heavy cell phone users. He takes that target, checks to

see what magazine those people like to read more than any other, and buys a full pager there. If the

magazine happens to be Forbes, great, if not, then Forbes doesn’t get anything back for its party. In this

case, Foreman knows he’s done right by AT&T and his employer. To the best of his ability, he guided

advertising money to the spot where it’ll do the most good. There remains a potential problem here,

however, which is the appearance of a conflict of interest. Even though Foreman didn’t let the parties

affect his judgment, someone looking at the whole thing from outside might well suspect he did if it

happens that Forbes gets the ad buy. This will be returned to later on in this chapter.

2. The darker possibility is that Forbes isn’t the best media buy, but they get the ad anyway because

Foreman wants to keep boarding the Highlander. In this case, Foreman is serving his own interest but

failing his obligations to his employer and to his client.

In pure ethical terms, the problem with the second possibility, with selling out the client, can be reduced

to an accusation of lying. When Foreman or any employee signs up for a job, shows up for work, and then

accepts a paycheck, they’re promising to be an agent for the organization, which is formally defined in

commercial law as someone acting on behalf of the organization and its interests. In some situations it

can be difficult to define exactly what those interests are, but in Foreman’s it’s not. He does well for his

employer when he gives the clients the best advice possible about spending their advertising dollars.

That’s his promise and he’s not fulfilling it.

Redoubling the argument, in the case of the typical media buyer, there’s probably also an explicit clause in

the employment contract demanding that all media advice be objective and uncorrupted by personal

interest. Even without that formal step, however, the shortest route to an ethical condemnation of buying

ads because a night on the Highlander (or some other gift) has been received is to underline that the act

turns the media purchaser into a liar. It makes him or her dishonest every time they come into work

because they’re not providing the objective and impartial advice they promise.

In discussing conflicts of interests, it’s important to keep in mind that those who find themselves caught

up in one haven’t necessarily been corrupted. Just because Foreman finds himself torn between giving

impartial advice to his client and giving the advice that gets him good parties doesn’t mean his judgment

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is poisoned. That said, it’s extremely difficult to walk away from a conflict of interest unstained: any time

serious gifts or rich entertainment gets injected into a business relationship, suspicious questions about

professionalism are going to seep in too.

Finally, there are two broad ways of dealing with gifts, especially those creating conflicts of interest. They

can be flatly refused, or rules can be formulated for accepting them responsibly.

Refusing Gifts and Entertainment

One way to avoid the gift and conflict of interest problem altogether for Chris Foreman or anyone in a

similar situation is to simply refuse any gifts from business partners. Far more frequently than private

businesses, government organizations take this route. The approach’s advantage, obviously, is that it

wipes out the entire question of wrongdoing. The disadvantage, however, is that it dehumanizes work; it

seems to forbid many simple and perfectly appropriate gestures of human interaction.

Here’s an example of what can happen when efforts to eradicate conflicting interests go to the extreme:

it’s from a New York Times front-pager about the state governor:

Governor David A. Paterson violated state ethics laws when he secured free tickets to the opening

game of the World Series from the Yankees last fall for himself and others, the New York State

Commission on Public Integrity charged on Wednesday. [4]

So, the governor is in trouble because he got some tickets to watch his home team play in the baseball

championship? That’s going to make Chris Foreman’s head swim. Without getting into the details of the

Paterson case, accepting these tickets doesn’t seem like a huge transgression, especially for someone

whose job pays well and is already packed with gala events of all kinds. It’s not as though, in other words,

Peterson’s going to be blown away by the generosity or become dependent on it. In the case of Foreman

who could barely afford to eat, it’s reasonable to suspect that he may come to rely on his occasional trip to

the Highlander, but it just doesn’t seem likely that the governor’s judgment and ability to fulfill

professional obligations are going to be distorted by the gift provided by the New York Yankees baseball

club. More, as the state’s elected leader, a case could probably be made that the governor actually had a

professional responsibility to show up and root for the home team (as long as the visitors aren’t the Mets).

As a final note, since the now former governor is legally blind, the value of the gift seems limited since he

couldn’t actually see the game he attended.

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Despite this case’s apparent frivolity, the general practice of eliminating conflict of interest concerns by

simply banning gifts can be justified. It can be because so many gifts, just by existing, create the

appearance of a conflict of interest. An appearance of conflict exists when a reasonable person looking at

the situation from outside (and without personal knowledge of anyone involved) will conclude from the

circumstances that the employee’s ability to perform his or her duties may be compromised by personal

interest. This is different from an actual conflict because when there’s really conflict, the

individual feels torn between professional obligations and personal welfare. Almost certainly, Foreman

was tempted to help out Forbes because he really liked the parties. But the case of Governor Paterson

presents only the appearance of a conflict of interest because we don’t know whether he even wanted the

tickets to the Yankees game. Given the fact that he’s blind, he may well have preferred staying home that

night. Still, for those of us who can’t know his true feelings, it does seem as though there might,

potentially, be some incentive for Paterson to return the Yankee favor and provide them some special

advantage. It’s almost certain that at some time in the future, the baseball club will have an issue up for

debate by the state government (perhaps involving the construction of a stadium or maybe just a license

to sell beer inside the one they currently have), and as soon as that happens, the appearance of conflict is

there because maybe Paterson’s response will be colored by the tickets he got.

Conclusion. Refusing to accept any gifts from business associates is a reasonable way of dealing with the

ethical dilemma of conflicting interests. By cutting the problem off at the roots—by eliminating not only

conflicts but the appearance of them—we can go forward with confidence that a worker’s promise to

represent the organization faithfully is uncorrupted by the strategic generosity of others.

What Other Remedies Are Available for Conflict of Interest Problems Stemming

from Gifts?

Categorically refusing gifts may be recommendable in some cases, but in most economic situations a total

ban isn’t realistic. People make business arrangements the same way they make friendships and romance

and most other social things—that mean invitations to the Highlander if you’re lucky, or just to a few

Budweiser’s in the hotel bar. And if you turn everyone down every time, it’s probably going to dampen

your professional relationships; you may even lose the chance to get things done because someone else

will win the contract between drinks.

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So where does the line get drawn for accepting gifts with ethical justification? Whether you happen to be a

renowned politician in a large state or someone just out of school trying to make a go of it in the world,

there are a number of midpoints between Governor Paterson’s obligation to refuse tickets to a game he

couldn’t see anyway and Chris Foreman’s raucous partying on the Highlander. Three of the most common

midpoints are

1. transparency,

2. recusal,

3. organizational codes.

REVIEW QUE STIONS
1. Why might someone’s social skills be considered a factor in receiving a promotion?
2. What are some advantages and disadvantages of seniority promotion?
3. Why might a promotion be based on projected performance?
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[1] Maya, “Alcohol: Income Booster?,” Monster (blog), September 20, 2006, accessed May 24,
2011, http://monster.typepad.com/monsterblog/2006/09/alcohol_ income_.html.
[2] Bethany L. Peters and Edward Stringham, “No Booze? You May Lose,” Reason Foundation, September 1, 2006,
accessed May 24, 2011,http://reason.org/news/show/127594.html.
[3] Bethany L. Peters and Edward Stringham, “No Booze? You May Lose,” Reason Foundation, September 1, 2006,
accessed May 24, 2011,http://reason.org/news/show/127594.html.
[4] Maya, “Alcohol: Income Booster?,” Monster (blog), September 20, 2006, accessed May 24,
2011, http://monster.typepad.com/monsterblog/2006/09/alcohol_ income_.html.
[5] Deloitte Consulting: WetFeet Insider Guide (San Francisco: WetFeet), accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.wellesley.edu/Activities/homepage/consultingclub/wetfeet%20-%20deloitte_consulting.pdf.
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8.4 Firing
L EARNING OBJECTIVE S
1. Define legal guidelines on firing employees.
2. Elaborate justifiable reasons for deciding to fire.
3. Set standards for the actual firing process.
4. Consider ways of limiting the need to terminate employees.
Optimal Level Firing
A study funded by the CATO Institute and titled “The Federal Government Should Increase Firing Rate”
concludes this way: “The rate of ‘involuntary separations’ is only about one-fourth as high in the federal
government as in the private sector. No doubt private-sector firing is below optimal as well since firms are
under threat of expensive wrongful discharge lawsuits.” [1]
There is, in other words, an optimal level for firing, and in both the public and private sectors it’s not
being met. People aren’t being fired enough.
The strictly economic question here is, “What is the optimal firing level?” No matter the answer, there’s an
ethical implication for the workplace: firing workers is a positive skill. For managers to perform well—for
them to serve the interest of their enterprise by maximizing workplace performance—the skills of
discharging employees must be honed and applied just like those of hiring and promoting.
On the ethical front, these are the basic questions:
 When can an employee be fired?
 When should an employee be fired?
 How should an employee be fired once the decision’s been made?
 What steps can management take to support workers in a world where firing is inevitable?
When Can an Employee Be Fired?
In the world of for-profit companies, most work contracts offer at-will employment. Within this scheme, a
clause is written into the contract offering employment only as long as the employer desires. Stated more
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aggressively, managers may discharge an employee whenever they wish and for whatever reason. Here’s a
standard version of the contractual language:
This is an “At Will” employment agreement. Nothing in Employer’s policies, actions, or this
document shall be construed to alter the “At Will” nature of Employee’s status with Employer,
and Employee understands that Employer may terminate his/her employment at any time for
any reason or for no reason, provided it is not terminated in violation of state or federal law.
The legal parameters for firing seem clear.
Things blur, however, once reality hits. As the Cato study authors note, simply the fear of a possible
lawsuit does impinge to some extent on the freedom to fire, especially when the discharged worker fits
into a protected group. This means older workers, foreigners, or disabled workers may protest that no
matter what reasons are given for termination—assuming some are given—the real reason is their age,
nationality, or disability. Further, gender protection may be claimed by women fired from largely male
companies and vice versa.
Another round of blurring occurs on the state level where legislation sometimes adds specific employee
protections, and so curtails employers’ rights. In Minnesota, for example, firing may not be based on a
worker’s participation in union activities or the performance of jury duty.
These varied and frequently changing legal protections are the reason managers are typically instructed to
keep detailed records of employee performance. If those can be produced to show a pattern of
incompetence or simply inadequate results, they can justify a dismissal before a judge, if it ever comes to
that.
Even though legal complexities mean managers are well advised to be careful about firing workers, and
it’s prudent to be sure that there are directly work-related reasons for the dismissal, none of that changes
the fact that at-will hiring gives wide latitude to the company, and fired workers are typically left with few
good avenues of protest. One way to see how tilted the table is toward the employer and away from the
employee is to compare the American at-will firing system with the European model, where a reasonable
cause for termination must be demonstrated. In the United States, employers may more or less fire
anyone for any reason, and the burden of showing the termination was illegal or unfair falls entirely on
the worker. In Europe, by contrast, the legal burden falls largely on the employer. Instead of the worker
having to show the firing was wrong, now the company has to show the firing was right. This is a big deal.
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It’s like the difference between innocent until proven guilty and guilty until proven
innocent. Just because firing means the company holds the burden of proof: it must demonstrate that the
worker wasn’t holding up his or her end of the employment contract. That’s a lot harder to do than just
producing some work evaluations to buttress the claim that she wasn’t fired because she’s Jewish or he
wasn’t let go because he’s Asian. As opposed to the European reality, the conclusion is, employees in the
United States hired at will have little recourse against a company that wants them out.
Finally, it’s worth noting that elements of just cause law have been working their way into the American
legal system in recent years.
When Should an Employee Be Fired?
Because the legal footing is usually more or less solid for American managers, the real hard questions
about terminating employees aren’t legal ones about what can’t be done but ethical ones about what
should be done.
Sometimes firing is unavoidable. Economic slowdowns frequently bring furloughs and terminations.
When the company’s books turn red, and after the entire easy cost cutting has been done, people need to
be cut. Who? There are three broad philosophies:
1. Inverted seniority
2. Workload
3. Recovery preparation
Inverted Seniority occurs when the last worker hired is the first released. This works especially well for
assembly-line-type labor where one worker can replace another easily. As long as replacement is possible,
dismissing the most recently hired allows clear and impersonal rules to make downsizing orderly.
Workload firings focus the pain of job cuts on that part of the company suffering most directly from a
falloff in business. An office furniture supply company may find its line of hospital products unaffected by
an economic downturn (people keep getting sick even if they don’t have a job) so layoffs are taken from
other divisions. This may mean losing workers with higher seniority or better job performance, but it
minimizes cash-flow disruption.
Recovery preparation takes the long view on an economic slowdown: firings and layoffs are executed not
so much to compensate for the present downturn but to sharpen the company for success when the
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economy bounces back. Staying with the office furniture supply company, the owner may see better longterm
opportunities for profits in the nonhospital units, so the downsizing may occur across the board. The
idea is to keep those slow-moving units at least minimally prepared to meet new demand when it
eventually comes.
Sometimes economic slowdowns don’t reflect a problem with the larger economy, they’re the result
of fundamental changes in the market, frequently brought on by technological advance. For example, the
popularization of digital photography has shrunk the market for old fashioned film. Seeing this coming,
what can a company like Kodak do? They’re probably going to let workers from the old film side go to
create room for new hires in the digital division. This is potentially unfair to terminated workers because
they may be doing exemplary work. Still, it would be unfair—and financially disastrous—to the company
as a whole to not change with the times.
Rank and yank is a management philosophy promoted by former General Electric Company CEO Jack
Welch. Every year, he counsels, the entire workforce should be ranked and the bottom 10 percent
(“There’s no way to sugarcoat this,” he says) should be fired to make room for new employees who may be
able to perform at a higher level. Here, the responsibility to the company is being weighed far heavier than
the one to the employee because, theoretically at least, those in the bottom 10 percent may be doing fine
on the job—fulfilling their responsibilities adequately—it’s just that others out there who could be hired to
replace them may do it better. In the hope they will, workers who’ve done nothing wrong are sacrificed. [2]
There are two main criticisms of this practice. First, it’s a betrayal of employees who are fulfilling their
contractual obligations (they’re just not over performing as well as others). Second, it’s counterproductive
because it lowers morale by drowning workers in the fear that even though they’re doing what’s being
asked, they may end up in that dreaded bottom 10 percent.
Employee misbehavior is the least controversial reason to fire a worker. Here, the ethics are relatively
clear. Employees aren’t being mistreated when they’re dismissed because it’s their own actions that lead
to their end. Standard definitions of misbehavior include
 rudeness toward clients or customers,
 drinking or drugs on the job,
 theft of company property or using company property for personal business,
 frequent and unexplained absences from work,
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 entering false information on records,
 gross insubordination,
 fighting or other physical aggression,
 harassment of others (sexual, sexual orientation, religious, racial, and similar).
How Should an Employee Be Fired Once the Decision’s Been Made?
At the Friday all-staff meeting the office manager stands up to announce, “The good news is the following
people have not been fired!” He reads a list of seventeen names. There are nineteen people at the meeting.
That’s from a (perhaps unemployed) comic’s stand-up routine. Unfortunately, people have written into
the CNNMoney.com with real stories that aren’t so far removed:
 An employee received news of her firing in a curt letter delivered to her home by FedEx.
 A man tells of being halted at the building door by security and being humiliatingly sent away.
 People report that they arrived at their office to find the lock changed and their stuff thrown in a box
sitting on the floor. [3]
All these are inhumane firings in the sense that no flesh and blood person took the trouble to present the
bad news.
It’s easy to understand why inhumane firings occur: not many people enjoy sitting down with someone
and telling them they’re out. So it’s tempting to yield to cowardice. Instead of facing the worker you’ve
fired, just drop a note, change the lock, and talk to security. On the ethical level, however, firing an
employee is no different from working with an employee: as a manager, you must balance your duties to
the company and the worker.
How can the manager’s duty to the organization be satisfied when terminating a worker? First, to the
extent possible, the fired person should leave with a positive impression of the organization. That means
treating the employee with respect. No mailed notices of termination, no embarrassing lockouts, just a
direct, eye-to-eye explanation are probably the most reliable rule of thumb.
Second, the terminated employee should not be allowed to disrupt the continued work of those who
remain. If deemed necessary, security personnel should be present to ensure the ex-worker leaves the
premises promptly. Also, if the worker is involved in larger projects, a time for severance should be found
when their contribution is minimal so that other members of the team will be able to carry on near
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normally. (It may be recommendable to arrange the termination to coincide with the finishing of a larger
project so that everyone may start fresh with the new, substitute employee.)
Third, the financial costs of the termination should be minimized. This means having clear reasons for the
termination and documents (pertaining to worker performance or behavior) supporting the reasons to
guard against lawsuits. Also, there should be clear understandings and prompt payment of wages for work
done, as well as reimbursements for travel expenses and the full satisfaction of all monetary obligations to
the employee. This will allow the human resources department to close the file.
With duties to the company covered, how can the manager’s duty to the employee be satisfied?
Consultants—both legal and ethical—typically share some bullet-point answers. First, the employee
should be addressed honestly and directly with a clear explanation for termination. Speak firmly, the
advice is; don’t waver or provide any kind of false hope. Further, the termination should not come as a
total surprise. Previous and clear indications should have been given concerning employee performance
along with specific directions as to what areas require improvement. Many companies institute a structure
of written warnings that clearly explain what the employee’s job is and why their work is not meeting
expectations.
Second, getting fired is embarrassing, and steps should be taken to minimize the humiliation. The
employee should be the first to know about the discharge. Also, the severance should occur in a private
meeting, not in view of other workers. To the extent possible, the employee should have an opportunity to
say good-bye to workmates or, if this is the preference, to leave discreetly. For this reason, a meeting late
in the day may be chosen as the appropriate time for notice to be given.
Third, to the extent possible and within the boundaries of the truth, an offer should be extended to
provide a recommendation for another job.
Fourth, make sure the employee gets all the money coming for work done, without having to jump
through hoops.
What Steps Can Management Take to Support Workers in a World Where Firing
Is Inevitable?
One response to the inescapable reality that firing happens is preemptive; it’s to reduce the moral
uncertainty and hardship before they arise. Two strategies serve this purpose: actions can be
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implemented to minimize the occasions when firing will be necessary, and steps can be taken to reduce
the severity of the firing experience for employees when it happens.
In her book Men and Women of the Corporation, Rosabeth Moss Kanter generates a list of measures that
corporations use to diminish firings, and reduce the professional impact for those who are let go. Here’s
an abbreviated selection of her recommendations, along with a few additions:
 Recruit for the potential to increase competence, not simply for narrow skills to fill today’s slots.
 Rotate assignments: allow workers to expand their competence.
 Retrain employees instead of firing them.
 Offer learning opportunities and seminars in work-related fields.
 Subsidize employee trips to work-related conferences and meetings.
 Provide educational sabbaticals for employees who want to return to school.
 Encourage independence and entrepreneurship: turn every employee into a self-guided professional.
 Keep employees informed of management decisions concerning the direction of the company: What units
are more and less profitable? Which ones will grow? Which may shrink?
 Ensure that pensions and benefits are portable. [4]
KEY TAKEAWAYS
 At-will firing grants employers broad legal latitude to discharge employees, but it does not erase ethical
concerns.
 Justifiable worker firings include cases where workers bear none, some, or all of the blame for the
discharge.
 The act of firing a worker requires managers to weigh responsibilities to the organization and to the exemployee.
 Steps can be taken to limit the need for, and effects of, employee discharge.
REVIEW QUE STIONS
1. What’s the difference between at-will and just cause firing?
2. How might fundamental changes in the marketplace require a company to fire workers?
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3. What is rank and yank?
4. When managers fire employees, what duties do they hold to the organization, and what are the duties to
the dismissed worker?
5. What are some steps organizations can take to protect their workers from the effects of discharge if firing
becomes necessary?
[1] Chris Edwards and Tad DeHaven, “Federal Government Should Increase Firing Rate,” Cato Institute, Tax and
Budget, no. 10 (November 2002), accessed May 24, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/tbb/tbb-0211-10.pdf.
[2] Allan Murray, “Should I Rank My Employees?,” Wall Street Journal, accessed May 24,
2011, http://guides.wsj.com/management/recruiting-hiring-and-firing/should-i- rank-my-employees.
[3] “Worst Ways to Get Fired,” CNNMoney.com, September 6, 2006, accessed May 24,
2011, http://money.cnn.com/blogs/yourturn/2006/09/worst-ways-to-get-fired.html.
[4] List adapted from Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, 1993),
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8.5 Case Studies
Fashionable
Source: Photo courtesy of Ralph Aichinger, http://www.flickr.com/photos/sooperkuh/3275153928/.
In her blog Love This, MJ (full name not provided) relates that she’s been an aspiring clothes designer
since she started sewing tops for her Barbie dolls. Things weren’t going well, though, as she tries to break
into the industry. One thing she notices is that there aren’t a lot of female fashion designers out there—
Vera Wang, Betsey Johnson, and a few more. Not many. So she starts trying to figure it out with questions
like these:
 Do women want straight guy designers to dress them because they dress to please the men? It could make
sense: what that designer likes, the man in her life is going to love too.
 Do women prefer gay men to dress them because gay men are their new girlfriends? Gay men are usually
more receptive to trends and physical appearances too.
 Do women prefer women designers because she knows a woman’s body better?
 Do men have the same issue? Do some men prefer a lesbian designer? Would they balk at being dressed
by a gay designer? [1]
QUE STIONS
1. Assume MJ is right when she hypothesizes that most women like straight male designers because straight
guys are the ones they’re trying to impress, so they want clothes straight guys like. Now imagine you’ve
been put in charge of a new line of women’s clothes. Your number one task: sales success. You’ve got five
applicants for the job of designing the line. Of course you could just ask them all about their sexual
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orientation(s), but that might leave you open to a discrimination lawsuit. So could you devise a test for
new applicants that’s fair—that gives everyone an equal chance—but still meets your requirement of
finding someone who produces clothes that straight guys get excited about?
2. Four standard filters for job applicants are
o education level,
o high-risk lifestyle,
o criminal record,
o flamboyant presence in social media.
Which of these might be used to winnow out applications for a job as a clothes designer? Explain
in ethical terms.
3. MJ wonders whether women might prefer women designers because she knows a woman’s body better. Is
there a bona fide occupational qualification for a women’s fashion company to hire only women
designers? Is there a difference between a BFOQ based on sex and one based on sexual orientation?
4. MJ asks, “Do women prefer gay men to dress them because gay men are their new girlfriends?” Assume
you think there’s something to this. Could you design a few behavioral interview questions that test the
applicants’ ability to become girlfriends (in the sense that MJ means it) with their clients? Would these be
ethically acceptable interviews, or do you believe there’s something wrong and unfair about them?
God at Work
Source: Photo courtesy of Geoff Stearns, http://www.flickr.com/photos/tensafefrogs/1523795/.
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The University of Charleston is a private, nonreligious institution with a very particular job opening: the
Herchiel and Elizabeth Sims “In God We Trust” Chair in Ethics. According to the job description, the
successful candidate for this job as a professor “must embrace a belief in God and present moral and
ethical values from a God-centered perspective.” [2]
QUE STIONS
1. You’re in charge of getting applicants for this post and you’ve got a small advertising budget. What ethical
responsibilities should you consider when determining where to place the ad? How broadly should you
advertise the position?
2. According to Erwin Chemerinsky, a law professor at Duke University, “The description that
‘candidates must embrace a belief in God and present moral and ethical values from a Godcentered
perspective,’ violates the Civil Rights Act as religious discrimination in
employment.” [3] Imagine you’re in charge of every step of the process of filling this job. How
could you respond in terms of
o bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs),
o testing,
o interviewing?
3. You’re the university president. The person who currently holds the In God We Trust
Professorship has, by all accounts, been doing a mediocre to poor (but not directly unacceptable)
job. One day you happen to trip across the person’s blog page and notice that your professor
claims to be a sadist and practices a mild form of devil worship (also, the prof’s favorite movie
is The Omen). Right now the In God We Trust Professor of ethics is down the hall lecturing to
seventy-five undergrads. You sneak to the door and listen from outside. The professor sounds just
like always: dull and passionless, but the talk is about the Bible, and nothing’s being said that
seems out of line with the job description. Still, you decide to terminate the relationship.
o In a pure at-will working environment, you can just fire the professor. But imagine you want to
demonstrate just cause. How does this change the way you approach the situation? What would
your just causes be?
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o The professor’s classes are passionless because he doesn’t believe in what he’s teaching. Still, his
teachings are not directly wrong. Does this case show why a manager may be ethically required in
certain situations to implement a strategy of rank and yank? Explain.
Testing Baseball Players’ DNA
Source: Photo courtesy of katkimchee,http://www.flickr.com/photos/midwestkimchee/206762729/.
The New York Times reports that there’s a “huge difference between sixteen and nineteen years old,”
when you’re talking about prospects for professional baseball. A kid whose skills knock your socks off for a
sixteen-year-old just looks modestly good when he practices with nineteen-year-olds. [4]
This is a significant problem in the Dominican Republic, which produces excellent baseball players but
little in the way of reliable paperwork proving who people really are and when they were born. The
Cleveland Indians learned all about that when they gave a $575,000 bonus to a seventeen-year-old
Dominican named Jose Ozoria, only to later find out he was actually a twenty-year-old named Wally
Bryan.
This and similar cases of misidentification explain why baseball teams are starting to apply genetic tests to
the prospects they’re scouting. Typically, the player is invited to provide a DNA sample from himself and
his parents to confirm that he’s no older than he claims. The player pays for the test and is reimbursed if
the results show he was telling the truth.
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QUE STIONS
1. Many experts in genetics consider testing an unethical violation of personal privacy.
o What does it mean to “violate personal privacy”?
o Can a utilitarian argument (the greatest good for the greatest number should be sought) in favor
of DNA testing in the Dominican Republic be mounted? What could it look like?
2. In the baseball world, other tests that clearly are allowed as part of the hiring process include testing a
player’s strength and speed. Is there anything in the fair application of these tests that may ethically
allow—even require—that baseball teams extract DNA to confirm the age?
3. Assume you accept that testing a prospect’s age is a bona fide occupational qualification (after all,
the job is to be a prospect: a developing player, not an adult one). Once you accept that, how do
you draw the line? Couldn’t teams be tempted to use DNA facts for other purposes?
The Times article interviews a coach who puts it this way:
I know [the baseball teams taking the DNA samples] are looking into trying to figure out
susceptibility to injuries, things like that. If they come up with a test that shows someone’s
connective tissue is at a high risk of not holding up, can that be used? I don’t know. [5]
Can you formulate an ethical argument in favor of teams secretly using DNA tests to do just that,
check for as many yellow and red flags as possible in the young prospect’s genetic code?
4. Baseball scouting—the job of hiring excellent future players and screening out mediocre ones—is very
competitive. Those who do it well are paid well; those who don’t are cycled out quickly to make room for
someone else. You have the job, you have the DNA sample. What do you do? Why?
5. You decide to do the test in question four. The problem is people aren’t trees; you can’t age them
just by counting genetic rings—you also need to do some cross-testing with the parents’ DNA. You
do that and run into a surprise: it turns out that the young prospect’s father who’s so proud of his
athletic son isn’t the biological dad. Now what?
o Is there an argument here against DNA testing, period? What is it?
o Remember, the family paid for the test. Do you have a responsibility to give them these results?
Explain.
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6. Lou Gehrig was the first athlete ever to appear on a box of Wheaties. From 1925 to 1939 he played for the
Yankees in every game: 2,130 straight appearances, a record that lasted more than fifty years. He was
voted into the baseball Hall of Fame in 1939. He died in 1941 from a genetic disorder—yes, Lou Gehrig’s
disease—that today’s DNA tests would identify. Is there an ethical argument here against DNA testing of
prospects or one in favor? Or is the argument about this more theoretical—should the rules be decided
regardless of what has actually happened at some time or place? Explain.
7. In a different sport, the sprinter Caster Semenya won the world eight-hundred-meter challenge in 2009
with a time that few men could equal. She looked, in fact, vaguely like a man, which led the International
Athletics Federation to run a genetic gender test. She is, it turns out, neither a woman nor a man; she’s a
hermaphrodite: a little bit of both. Does the fact that genetic tests don’t always return clean, black-andwhite
results make their use less advisable from an ethical perspective? Why or why not?
Windfall at Goldman
Source: Photo courtesy of Manuel Cernuda, http://www.flickr.com/photos/melkorcete/180238980/.
Goldman Sachs is an expansive financial services company. Many clients are institutional: private
companies and government organizations wanting to raise cash seek Goldman’s help in packaging and
then selling stock or bonds. On the other side, private investors—wealthy individuals wanting to multiply
their riches—receive a hearty welcome at Goldman because they have the cash to purchase those stocks
and bonds. Ultimately, Goldman Sachs is a hub where large companies, governmental powers, and
wealthy people come and do business together.
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Executives at Goldman Sachs are among the world’s highest paid. According to a New York Times article,
“At the center of Goldman’s lucrative compensation program is the partnership. Goldman’s partners are
its highest executives and its biggest stars. Yet while Goldman is required to report compensation for its
top officers, it releases very little information about this broader group, remaining tightlipped about even
basic information like who is currently a partner.” [6]
The rest of the article investigates this shadowy partnership. The conclusions: “Goldman has almost 860
current and former partners. In the last 12 years, they have cashed out more than $20 billion in Goldman
shares and currently hold more than $10 billion in Goldman stock.”
This tally of accumulated wealth in Goldman stock doesn’t even include the standard salary and cash
bonuses the partners receive, but leaving that aside, here’s the math: $30 billion divided by 860 divided
by 12 should give some sense of the wealth each of these corporate stars is accumulating over the course of
a year. To give a provisional idea of how large the number of dollars is here, when you try plugging $30
billion into an iPhone calculator, you find the screen can’t even hold a number that long. Using a different
calculator yields this result: $2.9 million per partner every year.
The 2.9 million can be compared with the salary earned by the average American: $50,000 a year. The
Goldman partner gets that in less than a week. This huge money explains the clawing fight that goes on
inside Goldman to become a partner. The odds are long. Each time the books are opened to admit a new
class, only 1 of 330 Goldman employees makes the cut. It is, in the words of one former partner, “a very
Darwinian, survival-of-the-fittest firm.”
In the public comments section of the New York Times story about Goldman, a person identified as GHP
picks up on the firm’s characterization as a “Darwinian, survival-of-the-fittest” place. He wrote, “The
French revolution was also very Darwinian, let’s give that a try.” During the French Revolution, the
wealthy and powerful were rewarded with a trip to the guillotine.
Probably, GHP isn’t just annoyed about how much money executives at Goldman make, he, like a lot of
people, is peeved by the fact that the company was bailed out by the federal government during the 2008–
9 financial crisis. Had the taxpayers (people making $50,000) not kicked in, Goldman might’ve gone
bankrupt, and all that money its partners accumulated in stock would’ve vanished. As it happens, the US
government’s bailout was masterminded by US Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson. His previous job was
CEO (and partner) at Goldman.
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QUE STIONS
1. Goldman is dominated by a “Darwinian, survival-of-the-fittest” mentality. What does that mean?
o In ethical terms, how can this mentality be justified?
o Would a company dominated by this mentality, whether it’s Goldman or not, be more likely to
announce job openings to a limited public, or as a massive public announcement? Why?
2. Describe the advantages of a “behavioral interview.” If you were in charge of hiring for a company seeking
employees who flourish in a survival-of-the-fittest environment, what kind of question might you ask in a
behavioral interview? Why?
3. One contributor to the New York Times comments section writes, “There are sure to be lots of
pointed, angry posts about how unfair it is that these guys make so much money etc. But if we are
honest, there is a fair amount of envy and pure remorse that we weren’t bright enough to go
down that path! And these guys are very bright.”
How could these comments be construed to explain why high wages and big bonuses are used by
Goldman to motivate its workers? What is it that makes big money (or the possibility of big
money) function as a powerful motivator to encourage employees to work hard and well?
Ethically, how can this use of big money be justified?
4. One difference between offering an employee a wage increase and offering a bonus is that the
latter doesn’t come automatically the next year. The employee has to earn it from scratch all over
again.
o Why might managers at Goldman award their best workers with a bonus instead of a wage
increase?
o By appeal to an ethical theory, could you make the case that, in general, employees should be
paid mainly through a bonus system? How would the theory work at two extremes: wealthy
Goldman executives and waitresses at a corner diner?
5. Given the kind of work that’s done at Goldman—bringing wealthy people and powerful organizations
together to make deals—why might party aptitude (the ability to mix socially after hours) be considered
when deciding who does and who doesn’t make partner at Goldman? How could that decision be justified
ethically? How could it be criticized ethically?
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6. Make the case that in theoretical terms, managers at Goldman have an ethical responsibility to institute
the process of rank and yank.
The Five O’Clock Club
Source: Photo courtesy of C.P. Storm, http://www.flickr.com/photos/cpstorm/140115572/.
A Washington Post story about firing employees relates that some companies use “the surgical method:
terminations that last about 15 seconds, after which former employees are ushered off company
property.”[7]
It doesn’t have to be that way, though. For about $2,000 per fired employee, the outplacement company
Five O’Clock Club will help employers manage the actual termination moment more compassionately.
Later on, the fired worker receives a year of career coaching to help get back on track.
What do the Five O’Clock Club recommend managers do at the critical moment when giving the bad
news? To answer, according to the Post, they offer a booklet titled How to Terminate Employees While
Respecting Human Dignity, which “asks managers to approach layoffs with the understanding that,
‘unlike facilities and equipment, humans have an intrinsic worth beyond their contribution to the
organization.’” [8]
Then some catchphrases are provided for managers to use:
 George, you’ve been a trooper. I’m sorry that this organization has moved in a different direction.
 George, you have made many good friends here. We hope those friendships will continue.
 George, you have made considerable and long-lasting contributions and they are acknowledged and
appreciated. [9]
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Five O’Clock Club vice president Kim Hall—who downs a lot of Tylenol and coffee on the job—relates
several other phrases that may be helpful:
 I know this is hard, but you’ll get back on your feet.
 The timing could actually work in your favor. A lot of people take vacation in the summer. There’s no
competition for job hunters.
 Maybe this is a chance to begin your dream career. Follow your heart.[10]
In sum, the Five O’Clock Club helps workers feel better when they’re fired, and helps them get on with
their lives. Meanwhile, employers get a hedge against lawsuits. The outplacement service, according to the
Five O’Clock Club literature, “can redirect anger or anxiety away from the organization and…encourage
the newly-fired to sign their severance agreements so they can get on with their lives.” [11]
QUE STIONS
1. The Five O’Clock Club charges $2,000 per firing. If you were fired, would you prefer to receive the
compassionate end the Five O’Clock Club provides, or just get shown the door but also get to keep
that $2,000 for yourself?
o If you’re the boss, do you have the right to decide this for the fired employee? Why or why not?
o If you’re the boss, do you have the responsibility to decide this for the fired employee? Why or
why not?
2. According to the Five O’Clock Club, “Unlike facilities and equipment, humans have an intrinsic
worth beyond their contribution to the organization.”
o Does this sound like utilitarian ethical thinking to you, or is it more in line with the notion of an
ethics guided by basic duties and rights? Why?
o Probably, everyone agrees that humans aren’t just machines that can be installed and replaced.
But can an ethical argument be made to treat people in the workplace as machines—that is, to
abruptly hire them when they’re useful and fire them when they’re not? What ethical theory (or
theories) could help you make the case?
3. In general terms, here are three firing situations:
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o an economic downturn (good workers are sacked because the company can’t afford to keep
them)
o rank and yank (workers are fulfilling their duties but not as well as most of the others)
o misbehavior (a worker is fired directly because of something done or not done)
Looking at these three contexts and the Five O’Clock Club, do you think their services should be
hired in all three situations? Do the ethics of firing change depending on why the person is being
fired? Explain.
4. Recall some of the Five O’Clock Club’s pre-packed firing sentences:
o George, you’ve been a trooper. I’m sorry that this organization has moved in a different direction.
o George, you have made many good friends here. We hope….
o George, you…are acknowledged and appreciated.
o Maybe this is a chance to begin your dream career. Follow your heart.
The contrasting method of firing employees—the surgical method—is to look the person in the
eye, say you’re fired, and have security march the ex-employee out the door, all in less than a
minute.
o Is it possible to make the case that the surgical method is actually more compassionate and
respectful?
o Is there a place for compassion in business? From a manager’s perspective, how should
compassion be defined within a business context?
5. Maybe the Five O’Clock Club gets hired because a company really wants to help and support fired
employees. Or maybe the company doesn’t really care about them; all they want is to avoid wrongful
termination lawsuits. Ethically, does it matter why the company contracts the Five O’Clock Club? Explain.
[1] “Sexual Orientation in the Fashion Industry,” Love This! (blog), accessed May 24,
2011,http://lovethis.wordpress.com/2007/07/28/sexual-orientation-in-the-fashion-industry.
[2] Rob Capriccioso, “Divinely Inspired Bias?,” Higher Ed, March 1, 2006, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2006/03/01/charleston.
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[3] Rob Capriccioso, “Divinely Inspired Bias?,” Higher Ed, March 1, 2006, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2006/03/01/charleston.
[4] Michael S. Schmidt and Alan Schwarz, “Baseball’s Use of DNA Raises Questions,” New York Times, July 21, 2009,
accessed May 24, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/22/sports/baseball/22dna.html?hp.
[5] Michael S. Schmidt and Alan Schwarz, “Baseball’s Use of DNA Raises Questions,” New York Times, July 21, 2009,
accessed May 24, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/22/sports/baseball/22dna.html?hp.
[6] Susanne Craig and Eric Dash, “Study Points to Windfall for Goldman Partners,” New York Times, January 18,
2011, accessed May 24, 2011,http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2011/01/18/study-points-to-windfall-for-goldmanpartners/?
hp.
[7] Eli Saslow, “The Art of Letting Employees Go,” Washington Post, August 9, 2009, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080802659.html?hpid=topnews.
[8] Eli Saslow, “The Art of Letting Employees Go,” Washington Post, August 9, 2009, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080802659.html?hpid=topnews.
[9] Eli Saslow, “The Art of Letting Employees Go,” Washington Post, August 9, 2009, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080802659.html?hpid=topnews.
[10] Eli Saslow, “The Art of Letting Employees Go,” Washington Post, August 9, 2009, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080802659.html?hpid=topnews.
[11] Eli Saslow, “The Art of Letting Employees Go,” Washington Post, August 9, 2009, accessed May 24,
2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
content/article/2009/08/08/AR2009080802659.html?hpid=topnews.
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Chapter 9
Manager’s Ethics: Deciding on a Corporate Culture and
Making It Work
Chapter Overview
Chapter 9 “Manager’s Ethics: Deciding on a Corporate Culture and Making It Work” examines some
ethical decisions facing managers. It considers how leaders guide organizations by selecting and then
instilling the specific values and culture that define a workplace.
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9.1 What Is Corporate Culture?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the concept of corporate culture or, more broadly, organizational culture.
2. Learn to recognize and distinguish specific organizational cultures.
3. Consider ways that a culture may be instilled in an organization.
I’m a Mac, and I’m a PC
“I’m a Mac, and I’m a PC” is the first line from a set of advertisements produced for Apple. [1] Two guys
stand in front of a white screen, a step or two apart. The one pretending to be an Apple Macintosh
computer looks a lot like you’d expect the typical Apple computer user to look: casual, young, and cool;
he’s not stressed but certainly alert and thoughtful. He hasn’t had a haircut in a while, but the situation
isn’t out of control. He speaks up for himself without being aggressive. His t-shirt is clean, his jeans
reliable, and his tennis shoes stylish. The PC, on the other hand, can’t relax in a polyester suit that’s a half
size too small, especially for his inflated waistline. Bulky glasses slide down his greasy nose. Short, parted
hair glues to his head. He’s clean, shaven, and very earnest. In one of the commercials, the PC man talks
about the things he does well: calculation, spreadsheets, and pie charts. The Mac responds that he feels
more comfortable helping users make their own movies and organize their music collections.
Underneath these ads there are two very different corporate cultures, two very different kinds of
companies making two very different products even though both sell their machines in the store’s
computer section. Now, because this is advertising and it’s paid for by Apple, we should take the claims
being made with a grain of salt. And, obviously, Apple didn’t air these spots because they wanted to
exhibit their corporate culture. They wanted to sell computers (and hammer the competition in the
process). None of that, however, changes the fact that the commercials do a good job of displaying what a
difference between corporate cultures looks like. It looks like these two guys. They’re both capable and
dedicated, but everything about each of them makes the other one squirm; it’s hard to imagine they could
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work well together because their habits and comportments—everything from how they dress to the way
the talk—is so completely different.
The same can be said about workplaces. It’s easy to imagine a kind of office where PC fits nicely. People
there would wear ties and skirts. They’d be punctual. Their days and working styles would be regimented
and predictable. Employees would have their own cubicle offices, and anyone proposing an “informal
Friday” break from the dress code would be looked on with suspicion. By contrast, Mac would function
well in an open, warehouse-like space with a bike rack out front. Flextime would be common—that is,
people arriving earlier or later in the morning depending on their preference and on the circumstances of
their lives (whether they have children, when they can avoid rush-hour traffic). Regardless of when they
show up, they take responsibility for making sure they log a full workday. The attire would be casual and
diverse. Maybe the boss wears jeans. Some people would probably be annoying others with their loud
music, but everyone would force smiles and be tolerant.
One of the reasons the Apple ad works well is that it resists the temptation to simply say Apple is superior.
Yes, PC is dorky and Apple is cool, but Apple does admit that PC really is better at analytic-type activities
like producing clean spreadsheets. The same mixed findings apply to corporate culture. At the PC office,
the clothes aren’t nearly as comfortable as the ones you find at the Mac place, but at least there aren’t any
guys wearing jeans that fall a little too low over their back end. And the flextime scheduling at Apple may
make for a happier workforce, but only until it happens that a project suddenly arises and needs to be
executed immediately, and one of the key participants has flex-timed and already left for the day. The
other team members are left, that means, to do his share of the work. What about the bike racks outside?
Everyone agrees that it’s great that the Mac people are peddling to work, but only until a morning
thunderstorm pops up and no one can make it to the office. The point is there are advantages and
drawbacks to every corporate culture. It’s hard to say that one is better than another (just like Macs work
for some people while others prefer PCs), but it’s certainly true that there are different value systems
beneath the distinct cultures.
Anyone who has a management role in any organization will be expected to have a grip on what values
guide the enterprise and how they reflect in the day-to-day life of people on the job. Further, some
managers—and all entrepreneurs—will not only need to apply guiding values; they’ll have to select and
create them.
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Definitions of Corporate Culture
Corporate culture is easier to get intuitively than put into words. Because you can’t touch it, measure it, or
take its picture (even though you can show two people in an advertisement who obviously belong to
different corporate cultures), it’s not surprising that there’s no consensus definition attached to the term.
Here are three attempts to put the idea in words. A corporate culture is
 “the shared beliefs top managers have in a company about how they should manage themselves and other
employees, and how they should conduct their business”; [2]
 “the pattern of shared values and beliefs that gives members of an institution meaning and provides them
with rules for behavior in their organization”; [3]
 “a general constellation of beliefs, mores, customs, value systems and behavioral norms, and ways of
doing business that are unique to each corporation, that set a pattern for corporate activities and actions,
and that describe the implicit and emergent patterns of behavior and emotions characterizing life in the
organization.” [4]
There are common threads to these cited definitions and some points that may be added:
 Corporate culture is shared; it’s not like a regulation or a code that’s imposed from some specific place
outside the organization. The culture may begin that way, but once installed, it belongs to all those
participating in the workplace.
 Corporate culture provides guidance. It’s not a potted plant to be looked at; corporate culture tells an
employee that the Daffy Duck necktie is too far out there and should be left in the closet. The pumpkin
necktie, however, is OK as long as we’re coming up on Halloween. Analogously, though more significantly,
it tells a salesman whether it’s OK to flagrantly lie to a customer, to stretch the truth a little, or only to play
it straight.
 Corporate culture provides meaning in the organization; it tells members why they are there. At Goldman
Sachs, the bottom line really is the bottom line: people are there to make money. At Greenpeace, by
contrast, people arrive in the morning to protect the planet, and while it’s true that many receive a
paycheck for their efforts, that’s not the reason they show up for work.
 Corporate culture is top heavy; management carries the heaviest burden. Unlike simple office codes—such
as turning in your expense reports within a week of terminating travel—that apply to people more or less
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uniformly, the burden of understanding and promulgating the organization’s culture falls heavily, though
not exclusively, on the leaders.
 A corporate culture is a constellation of values, a set of ways of seeing the business world.
 The constellation of cultural values is dynamic; everyone involved every day stretches and pushes the
organization’s culture.
 An organization’s culture is organic; it’s born and grows with the organization. It dies there too.
 The organization’s culture includes life values, ones that cross beyond purely business concerns to touch
questions including, “Is it OK to date someone from work?” “Can I cry at my desk?” “Will anyone object if
I have a shouting match with my wife from the telephone in my cubicle?”
This list isn’t exhaustive. It does, however, show how thoroughly corporate culture penetrates the
workday.
What’s My Organization’s Culture?
Managers’ job responsibilities include protecting and promoting their organization’s culture. Fulfilling the
responsibility requires determining exactly what culture lives in the workplace. There’s no secret decoding
mechanism, but there are a number of indicating questions that may be asked. One of the most natural is
to brainstorm associated words. For example, imagine visiting two offices, one filled with people who look
like the Apple Mac from the commercial, and the other with those who’d fit naturally into the office where
PCs are bought and used. Just looking at the commercial and jotting words as they flow might lead to lists
beginning this way:
 On the Apple side: sloppy, fun, warm, loose, careless, resigned, informal, smart, creative, soft-spoken,
controlled, cool, and haughty.
 On the PC side: uptight, formal, reliable, demanding, uncomfortable, determined, perfectionist, detail
oriented, disciplined, unconcerned with appearances, and geeky.
These are short, rapidly composed lists, but they’re developed enough to observe two profiles of work-life
peeking out. You can see that that the Apple office is going to fit closely with values including comfort,
innovation, and independence, while the PC office will be more compatible with values including
reliability and responsibility. You can count on the PC office to get things done, but if you’re looking for
something outside the box, you may be better off going the Apple route.
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Other questions getting at the heart of an organization’s culture and basic values include these dealing
with the workplace time: How many hours are expected at work each week? Is there flextime? Is there
telecommuting? Is there a punch clock or some other kind of employee time-in-the-office monitoring? Is
it more important that the employee be present or that the work gets done? In some offices it’s the
former; in others, the latter.
Then there are questions about employee interaction. Is each worker situated in a private room or a more
open, common space? Do people tend to compete with each other or is teamwork a higher value? To the
extent there’s individual competition, how far does it go? Is it a good-natured jousting, or closer to hostile
blood sport? Of course different kinds of organizations are going to recommend themselves to one side or
the other of the spectrum. For example, a doctor’s office, an archeological dig, a construction company are
relatively good places to value teamwork. A stockbroking office, a pro basketball team, and an actors’
studio are spots where you may want to encourage individuals to outdo those around them.
What’s the workplace mood? Fun? Somber? Energetic? Modern? Traditional? Many Volkswagen
dealerships are remarkable for their huge windows and sunlight; it’s a kind of work environment for the
sales staff meant to encourage an open, airy feel conducive to car buying. Elevated heating and cooling
costs go along with all that glass, however, and different workplaces where money is valued more than
ambience may choose to cut operating costs with a drabber space. Going beyond the architecture,
different offices have different moods. It’s pretty rare that you see practical jokes or trash-basket
basketball games going on at the dentist’s office. On the other hand, anyone who’s ever operated a call
center telephone knows there’s a solid chunk of each workday dedicated to high jinks.
Is the workplace personalized? Some office cubicles burst with family snapshots and personal
memorabilia. Most assembly lines, on the other hand, are practically devoid of individual touches.
Are employee’s workers or people doing work? If the former—if the value the organization attributes to
those receiving paychecks is limited to what they do to earn the check—then few resources will be
dedicated to supplemental and benefits. On the other side, a corporate culture valuing its employees as
people may provide extra vacation time, health insurance, and retirement plans. Branching out further,
you can get an idea of a workplace culture by checking to see if a gym or exercise room is provided. Day
care for those with young children is another sign of the corporate culture that values workers as integral
people.
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Dress codes reflect the organization’s values. Is uniformity or individuality more highly prized? If
uniformity is the rule, what kind is it? In some advertising agencies, for example, the people who work in
the creative department conceiving the commercials at first appear to be a diverse collection of
independent-minded dressers, but get a few together and you’ll immediately perceive a uniform that’s as
binding as the most traditional office—it’s just that ratty jeans replace slacks and clever t-shirts replace
neckties.
Another cultural indicator runs through the employees’ leisure time. Where do people hang out? Do they
go to football games, the opera, and church? Do they spend their weekend mornings on family excursions
because they have spouses and children, or are they still in bed, sleeping off the night before? More, is
leisure time spent with coworkers? Do employees get together just because they enjoy each other’s
company? If they do, the social outings are more likely to occur in connection with organizations seeking a
harmonious workforce and expending resources to foster camaraderie on the job. They’re less likely to
occur at organizations where everyone is fiercely competing with everyone else, as sometimes happens,
for example, at stockbrokerages.
Healthy community interaction is a value emphasized in some corporate cultures. Everyone has seen the
“adopt a highway” signs indicating that a local firm or group has taken responsibility for keeping a stretch
of highway litter-free. The professional sports leagues have traditionally asked players to dedicate some
season and off-season time to community outreach. Other kinds of organizations, by contrast, may not
even have a local community. Telecommuting and cloud computing mean employees can easily form a
functioning organization with members living in different states, even different countries.
Social cause activism is another marker of corporate culture. The shoemaker TOMS Shoes fights rural
poverty in developing nations by donating shoes. Other companies focus entirely on doing well in the forprofit
marketplace.
Political action may (or may not) infuse a corporate culture. Many companies steer clear of overt or even
hints of political partisanship for fear of alienating one or the other half of the electorate. This is especially
true for larger enterprises spread across the entire country, drawing consumers from liberal corners of
San Francisco, conservative bastions of north Dallas, and the libertarian towns of New Hampshire. Local
businesses, however, especially those catering to relatively homogenous communities, may find no
downside to flipping the switch on political activism and breeding partisanship as a guiding value. The
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company Manhattan Mini Storage provides (obviously) storage for household items in Manhattan. Their
big competition comes from warehouses in New Jersey. The Manhattan Mini Storage billboard ads read,
“If You Store Your Things in New Jersey, They May Come Back Republican.” This appeal may work pretty
well in central New York City, but it won’t seem very funny most other places.
Like politics, religious belief and doctrine are rarely set at the center of the largest corporations, but
smaller outfits operating in a narrow social context may well embody a particular faith.
Conclusion. Taken together, these categories of values begin shaping the particular culture defining an
organization.
How Is Organizational Culture Instilled?
A specific culture may be instilled in an organization through a set of published rules for employees to
follow or by the example of leaders and employees already working inside the organization.
Instilling a culture through established rules typically means publishing an organizational code governing
behavior, expectations, and attitudes. The multinational firm Henkel—the company that invented laundry
detergent and today produces many cleaning and health products sold under different brand names
around the world—has published this kind of code. It’s quite long, but here’s an edited section:
Shared values form the foundation of our behavior and our actions throughout Henkel. Every
single person plays a key role here. It is the sum of our actions that makes Henkel what it is—a
lively corporate culture in which change is embraced as opportunity and everyone is committed
to continuous improvement.
Our Values
1. We are customer driven.
2. We develop superior brands and technologies.
3. We aspire to excellence in quality.
4. We strive for innovation.
5. We embrace change.
6. We are successful because of our people.
7. We are committed to shareholder value.
8. We are dedicated to sustainability and corporate social responsibility.
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9. We communicate openly and actively.
10. We preserve the tradition of an open family company. [5]
This statement sounds good in general. The stubborn problem, however, with trying to capture a
corporate culture with a string of dictates and definitions parallels the ones constantly faced in ethics
when trying to make decisions by adhering to pre-established rules and duties: frequently, the specific
situation is far more complicated than the written code’s clear application. So, in the case of Henkel, we
learn that they embrace change, but does that mean employees can change the dress code by showing up
for work in their pajamas? Does it mean managers should rank and yank: should they constantly fire the
lowest-performing workers and replace them with fresh, young talent in order to keep turnover going in
the office? There’s no way to answer those questions by just looking at the code. And that creates the
threat of an at least perceived cultural dissonance within the organization—that is, a sense that what
actually happens on the ground doesn’t jibe with the lofty principles supposedly controlling things from
above.
Social Conditioning
The second form of instilling a culture doesn’t work through rules but through social conditioning; it’s not
about written codes so much as the cues provided by the customs of the workplace, by the way people
speak and act in the organization. New employees, in other words, don’t read handbooks but look around,
listen, and try to fit in.
In his book Business Ethics, O. C. Ferrell lists some of the social ways a culture infiltrates the
organization. [6] Selecting a few of those and adding others yields this list:
1. The founder’s ethical legacy to the organization may contribute to its living culture. Wal-
Mart’s founder Sam Walton was a legend in austerity; he industriously minimized costs so in-store prices
could be lowered correspondingly. This is a continuing aspect of Wal-Mart’s cultural legacy, though it can
be controversial on other fronts. Some complain that Wal-Mart is in essence encouraging third world
sweatshop labor by ruthlessly granting contracts to lowest-cost providers.
2. Stories and myths embedded in daily conversations may indicate culturally appropriate
conduct. Warren Buffett, leader of the Berkshire Hathaway investment group is a kind of Yogi Berra of
the finance world, a highly skilled professional with a knack for encapsulating pieces of wisdom. Here’s a
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paraphrase of one of Buffett’s thoughts, “I’m rich because I’ve always sold too early and bought too late.”
Conservative investing, the lesson is, yields value for shareholders. It’s also a high ethical value within the
corporate culture he tries to nurture.
3. Heroes or stars in the organization may consistently communicate a common message
about the organization’s guiding values. There’s a difference between lists of values written up in a
handbook and a group of leaders who together consistently talk about guiding values and live by them.
4. The dress, speech, and physical work setting may be arranged to cohere with the
organization’s values. The United Nations threw a wrench into its own efforts to reduce global carbon
emissions by scheduling its thirteenth annual global warming meeting in Bali. The weather was nice there,
but since most participants came from the United States and Europe, it became difficult not to notice that
the values of the organization’s handbook (control of carbon emissions) didn’t jibe with the values of the
organization’s members (burn tons of jet fuel to work in a place with sunny beaches). On the other hand,
the UN Foundation—which advocates reduced greenhouse gas emissions and similar—recently moved
into an environmentally friendly building with cubicles formed from a biodegradable product and many
similar, environmentally friendly features. [7]
5. An organizational culture may reinforce itself through self-selective processes. A selfselective
process is one where individuals effectively select themselves into a group as opposed to being
chosen by others. Hiring presents a good example. Presumably, when an organization hires new
employees, certain filters are constructed to reduce the applicant pool to those most likely to succeed. The
process becomes self-selective, however, when job interviews are conducted as they are at Google. There,
perspective employees are faced with bizarre questions that have nothing to do with the typical “Why do
you want to work at Google?” and “Why would you excel at this job?” Instead, they get the following:
o You have five pirates, ranked from five to one in descending order. The top pirate has the right to propose
how a hundred gold coins should be divided among them. But the others get to vote on his plan, and if
fewer than half agree with him, he gets killed. How should he allocate the gold in order to maximize his
share but live to enjoy it? (Hint: One pirate ends up with 98 percent of the gold.)
o A man pushed his car to a hotel and lost his fortune. What happened?
o Explain the significance of “dead beef.”
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In response, some applicants will dive into the challenges excitedly, while others will find the whole
process really weird and prefer not to be caught within a mile of a place where job interviewers ask such
bizarre questions. In the end, those who enjoy and want to continue with the job application process are
precisely those who will fit in at Google. Perspectives, that means, select themselves.
Conclusion. Two ways a corporate culture may be instilled and nurtured in a workplace are a list of codes
to be followed and a set of social techniques that subtly ensure those sharing a workspace also share
values corresponding with the organization.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
 An organizational culture is the set of values defining how and why members live at work.
 Distinguishing an organizational culture requires observing a range of values from the way people dress
to the degree of cooperation and competition in the workplace.
 An organization’s culture may be instilled through codes and rules.
 An organization’s culture may be instilled through social cues and pressures.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five aspects of a corporate or organizational culture.
2. Describe two workplace decisions that may be determined by a corporate culture.
3. List some questions you could ask about a workplace that would start to give you a sense of its culture.
4. What are five ways that an organization may attempt to instill a culture through social conditioning?
5. In your own experience in a job or any organization, what’s an example of social conditioning that
enforced the place’s culture?
[1] “‘Get a Mac’ Collection,” YouTube video, 9:39, posted by “Aploosh,” February 26,
2007,http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=siSHJfPWxs8.
[2] “Can this Man Save Labor?” BusinessWeek, September 24, 2004, 84.
[3] Robert Kuttner, “Labor and Management—Will They Ever Wise-Up?” BusinessWeek, May 9, 1994, 16.
[4] Simon Head, “Inside the Leviathan,” New York Review of Books, December 16, 2004, 88.
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[5] Henkel North America, Vision and Values (Düsseldorf, Germany: Henkel AG & Co.,
2008),http://businessethicsworkshop.com/Chapter_9/images/HenkelNorthAmerica_ Vision_and_Values.pdf.
[6] O. C. Ferrell, John Fraedrich, and Linda Ferrell, Business Ethics, 7th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008), 181.
[7] “UN Foundation Green Building,” YouTube video, 2:23, posted by “unfoundation,” February 14, 2008, accessed
May 25, 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15_MdcSUlSY.
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9.2 The Relation between Organizational Culture and
Knowing the Right Thing to Do
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Delineate an ethically questionable organizational culture.
2. Consider responses to an ethically questionable organizational culture.
3. Define compliance in the business world.
4. Discuss a way of measuring compliance.
Dishonesty in the Fish Market
A frequently recurring business ethics question involves dishonesty: when, if ever, is it OK to lie, to stretch
the truth, to not tell the whole truth? A simple scene of deceit goes like this: A fish dealer sells both
expensive salmon caught in the wild and relatively cheap farmed salmon. Occasionally, he switches the
farmed for the wild—a change that’s very difficult to detect through appearance or taste, even by expert
chefs—and pockets the difference. Randy Hartnell is a fish dealer in New York who suspected that a lot of
that kind of dishonest fish switching was going on among his competitors. He investigated and published
an Internet report. As he tells it, he visited the famed Fulton Fish Market in lower Manhattan and found
some dealers openly admitting that the fish they were selling as wild had actually come from a farm. [1]
This led the New York Times to do a follow-up story. Using sophisticated chemical tests,
the Times confirmed that, yes, at six of eight places sampled, fish being sold as wild for about thirty
dollars per pound was actually farmed salmon, which typically sells for about ten dollars a pound.
In the six bad cases, the person who actually made the switch participated in an organization where one or
both of two things were true about the culture:
1. Profit was understood as being more important than honesty.
2. Honesty was presumably important, but recalcitrant workers paid little attention and sacrificed the truth
to make a buck.
These are two very different situations, and they lead to distinct discussions: One has to do with choices
being made about what specific culture to instill in an organization. The other concerns compliance,
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which, in the business world, measures the distance between what an organizations says it believes and
what its members actually do.
An Ethically Questionable Corporate Culture
The first situation—one where a fish seller puts profit above honesty because that’s just the way things are
done in the company—is one which most outside observers would categorize as fundamentally corrupt.
Everyone inside the operation knows what’s going on—principal and peripheral members are lying to
bring in money—and newcomers are meant to pick up on and continue the practice. The organization
itself is dishonest.
What responses are available? First, we need to check whether a serious attempt is being made, or there’s
a real interest in making a serious attempt, to justify the deceitful actions. If there isn’t, if management
and leaders of a fish-selling business aren’t interested in ethical debates, there’s not much ethical
arguments can do about it. For those wishing to change a situation like this, the law (criminal and civil)
presents good venues for action. Bad publicity in the New York Times might do the trick too.
If, on the other hand, there is an interest on the organization’s part in justifying their actions from an
ethical viewpoint, we could ask, “Can institutionalized lying be justified and, if so, how?” Three possible
answers run through three distinct ethical theories: duty theory, consequentialist-utilitarian theory,
egoism:
1. Can basic duty theories justify putting profits above honesty? Probably not. Duty theories affirm that right
and wrong is determined by a set of unchanging rules, and they typically include don’t steal, don’t lie, and
similar. Because this kind of ethics starts from the proposition that dishonesty is wrong, it’s hard to see a
non-frivolous way of justifying the fish seller’s deceit.
2. Can a consequentialist-utilitarian theory justify putting profits above honesty? Utilitarian theory is
oriented by the common welfare. Acts in business—whether it’s lying or doing anything else—are defined
as acceptable or reproachable depending on whether they end up doing the most good for the most
people. Any act, the theory affirms, that ultimately makes more people happier is good.
In this case, we can imagine an organization promoting lying as a common operating principal and
making the case that the ethical stance is, in fact, good. Every Christmas, department stores deploy heavy
men in red suits to proclaim that they live at the North Pole and ride a sleigh pulled by reindeer. The
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stores promote these fictions—addressed to innocent children, no less—to make money. Almost no one
finds that ethically objectionable, however. One reason is that they’re implicitly accepting the affirmation
that an act making people happier in the end is good, even if it’s dishonest. Similarly, the CIA covert
operations branch (undercover spying, insofar as it truly exists) fits a utilitarian mold. In this
organization, lying is good because it ultimately serves the American national interest and the basic
principles of liberal democracies. Again here, the effects of what’s done matters more than what’s done.
Finally, can this reasoning be applied to the lying fish seller? Maybe. As the New York Times story notes,
the truth is that even the highest-level chefs and experts have a hard time distinguishing farmed from wild
salmon. There is, therefore, a kind of placebo effect for food. If the fake stuff tastes just as good as the real
thing, and the only real difference between selling one or the other is that the fish dealer makes out like a
bandit, then an argument could be formed that the double-dealing does, in fact, increase happiness (the
fish dealer’s) without hurting anyone else. Therefore, the dishonesty is ethically justifiable. In practical
terms, however, it’s difficult to see how this strategy could get too far. Sooner or later someone is going to
notice the difference, and as people begin to feel scammed (and therefore unhappy), the justification for
the double-dealing crumbles.
3. Can an ethical theory of egoism justify putting profits above honesty? Egoism is a coherent ethical
approach to the world that does offer some justification for a deceitful fish trader. On this account, the
ethical good for organizations and individuals in the economic world is defined as just whatever serves the
organization’s or individual’s interest. And switching in the farmed stuff in for the wild is good for the fish
sellers. (It’s hard to find any other explanation for the fact that, as the New York Times discovered, fully
75 percent of the places where fish was sold had some switching going on.) By definition, then, the dealing
is ethically justifiable under this theory. Of course, most proponents of egoism in the business world don’t
stop there. They go on to note that other, honest dealers who are pursuing their interests have a good
reason to reveal the fraud. And, as it turns out, that’s just what honest dealer Randy Hartnell did,
presumably helping his own business in the process.
Conclusion. Organizational cultures that incorporate lying as an acceptable part of day-to-day business do
exist. Whether or not these cultures are ethically justifiable depends on the deep theoretical stances
people adopt when going into business.
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The Ethics of Compliance
What happens when an organization’s principles are laudable, but they don’t get put into practice by the
people actually doing the work? What happens, the question is, when an enterprise (say, a fish-selling
operation) internally promotes basic values including honesty, but outside in the world where the
transactions happen, the lesson is lost and individual sellers are swapping farmed for wild salmon?
In the business world, this is called a breakdown in compliance. Of course there are different reasons for
compliance failure, everything from a bad-apple employee to a misunderstanding of directions, but the
broadest explanation is simply that key elements of the organization’s guiding philosophy aren’t getting
through to the members. One response to this possibility is a corporate culture ethics audit.
A corporate culture ethics audit attempts to loosely measure how open channels are between the ethical
values stationed at the top, and the actual practices down below, and one common way of doing the
measuring is with a questionnaire addressed to all an organization’s members. Strings of questions can be
answered simply yes/no or on a numerical scale from strongly agree (5) down to strongly disagree (0).
These questionnaires can be distributed and the responses coming back summed and compared with
previous samples in the same workplace or against results drawn from other workplaces. The goal is to get
a sense of where people are at in terms of putting company ideals into practice.
It goes without saying that a simple questionnaire can, at best, provide only a crude picture of what’s
actually going on inside an organization. The process must begin somewhere, however, and two attempts
at drawing up auditing questionnaires come from O. C. Ferrell’s Business Ethics [2] and Dr. Arthur Gross
Schaefer. [3] Combined, and with additions, subtractions, and modifications, the following corporate ethics
audit emerges. (As a quick note, this test could be nuanced by changing the responses from yes or no, to
agree or disagree on a one-through-five scale. Some audits also add a section for comments.)
A Corporate Culture Ethics Audit
Answer yes or no.
Part 1: Corporate Culture as Defined and Understood throughout the Organization
1. Are codes of ethics and business practices clearly communicated to employees?
2. Are there rules or procedures in company publications that may be consulted?
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3. Is there a value system and understanding of what constitutes appropriate behavior within the
organization that is shared by members at all levels of the organization?
4. Is there open communication going both ways between superiors and subordinates on questions
concerning ethics and organizational practices and goals?
5. Have employees ever received advice on how to bring behavior into closer alignment with the
organization’s values and norms?
6. Does the organization have methods for detecting ethical and behavioral concerns?
7. Are there penalties that are publicly discussed for transgressions of the organization’s rules and values?
8. Are there rewards for decisions corresponding with the organization’s culture (even if they don’t result in
a profit)?

Air pollution is the most immediate form of environmental poison for most of us, but not the only
significant one. In China, more than 25 percent of surface water is too polluted for swimming or fishing. [4]
Some of those lakes may have been ruined in the same way as Onondaga Lake near Syracuse, New York.
Over a century ago, resorts were built and a fish hatchery flourished on one side of the long lake. The
other side received waste flushed by the surrounding cities and factories. Problems began around 1900
when the fish hatchery could no longer reproduce fish. Soon after, it was necessary to ban ice harvesting
from the lake. In 1940, swimming was banned because of dangerous bacteria, and in 1970, fishing had to
be stopped because of mercury and PCB contamination. The lake was effectively dead. To cite one
example, a single chemical company dumped eighty tons of mercury into the water during its run on the
coast. Recently, the New York state health department loosened restrictions slightly, and people are
advised that they may once again eat fish caught in the lake. Just as long as it’s not more than one per
month. Those who do eat more risk breakdown of their nervous system, collapse of their liver, and teeth
falling out. [5]
Like liquid poisons, solid waste can be dangerous. Paper bags degrade fairly rapidly and cleanly, but
plastic containers remain where they’re left into the indefinite future. The metal of a battery tossed into a
landfill will break down eventually, but not before dropping out poisons including cadmium. Cadmium
weakens the bones in low doses and, if exposure is high, causes death.
At the industrial waste extreme, there are toxins so poisonous they require special packaging to prevent
even minimal exposure more or less forever. The waste from nuclear power plants qualifies. So noxious
are the spent fuel rods that it’s a matter of national debate in America and elsewhere as to where they
should be stored. When the Chernobyl nuclear plant broke open in 1986, it emitted a radioactive cloud
that killed hundreds and forced the permanent evacuation of the closest town, Pripyat. Area wildlife
destruction would require an entire book to document, but as a single example, the surrounding pine
forest turned red and died after absorbing the radiation storm.
Finally, all the environmental damage listed so far has resulted from ruinous substance additions to
natural ecosystems, but environmental damage also runs in the other direction as depletion. Our cars and
factories are sapping the earth of its petroleum reserves. Minerals, including copper, are being mined
toward the point where it will become too expensive to continue digging the small amount that remains
from the ground. The United Nations estimates that fifty thousand square miles of forest are disappearing
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each year, lost to logging, conversion to agriculture, fuel wood collection by rural poor, and forest
fires.[6] Of course, most of those tree losses can be replanted. On the other hand, species that are driven
out of existence can’t be brought back. As already noted, current rates of extinction are running far above
“background extinction” rates, which are an approximation of how many species, would disappear each
year were the rules of nature left unperturbed.
Conclusion. Technically, there’s no such thing as preserving the environment because left to its own
devices the natural world does an excellent job of wreaking havoc on itself. Disruptions including floods,
combined with wildlife battling for territory and food sources, all that continually sweeps away parts of
nature and makes room for new species and ecosystems. Still, changes wrought by the natural world tend
to be gradual and balanced, and the worry is that our industrialized lifestyle has become so powerful that
nature, at least in certain areas, will no longer be able to compensate and restore any kind of balance. That
concerns has led to both legal efforts, and ethical arguments, in favor of protecting the environment.
The Law
Legal efforts to protect the environment in the United States intensified between 1960 and 1970.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1970 to monitor and report on the state of
the environment while establishing and enforcing specific regulations. Well known to most car buyers as
the providers of the mile-per-gallon estimates displayed on the window sticker, the EPA is a large agency
and employs a workforce compatible with its mission, including scientists, legal staffers, and
communications experts.
Other important legal milestones in the field of environmental protection include:
 The Clean Air Act of 1963 and its many amendments regulate emissions from industrial plants and
monitor air quality. One measure extends to citizens the right to sue companies for damages if they aren’t
complying with existing regulations: it effectively citizenries’ law enforcement in this area of
environmental protection.
 The Clean Water Act, along with other, related legislation, regulates the quality of water in the geographic
world (lakes and rivers), as well as the water we drink and use for industrial purposes. Chemical
composition is important, and temperature also. Thermal pollution occurs when factories pour heated
water back into natural waterways at a rate sufficient to affect the ecosystem.
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 The Wilderness Act, along with other legislation, establishes areas of land as protected from development.
Some zones, including the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in northern Minnesota, are reserved for minimal
human interaction (no motors are allowed); other areas are more accessible. All wilderness and national
park areas are regulated to protect natural ecosystems.
 The Endangered Species Act and related measures take steps to ensure the survival of species pressed to
near extinction, especially by human intrusion. One example is the bald eagle. Subjected to hunting, loss
of habitat, and poisoning by the pesticide DDT (which caused eagle eggs to crack prematurely), a once
common species was reduced to only a few hundred pairs in the lower forty-eight states. Placed on the
endangered species list in 1967, penalties for hunting were increased significantly. Also, DDT was banned,
and subsequently the eagle made a strong comeback. It is no longer listed as endangered.
 The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 requires that an environmental impact statement be
prepared for many major projects. The word environment in this case means not only the natural world
$223 million: enough to pay five thousand gas station attendants. The list goes on. Reality imitates
Hollywood: nearly every field of work has its stars. [5]
What Is the Star System?
The star system in the economic world is a winner-take-almost-all structure for distributing wealth: those
who are successful in any particular field take home a vastly disproportionate share of the revenue. This is
easy to see in the movies and some other places (big-time professional sports, for example), but what
makes the star system a pressing issue in business ethics is that it seems to be expanding through our
economic lives. To begin getting a sense of the expansion—exactly what it is and means—two distinctions

may be drawn:
1. Individual worth versus salary (or income)
2. Vertical versus horizontal expansion of the star system
Individuals can separate from the larger population mass in terms of individual worth, and in terms
of salary. Loosely, the first is how much money someone would have if they sold everything they owned
and concentrated the dollars in a single bank account; the second is the amount an individual gets paid
each year to do something. These two measures may be very distinct—someone may be a star in one
category and ordinary in the other. Indra Tamang is a Nepalese immigrant who served a wealthy New
Yorker as butler for many years. In terms of salary, he could not be called a star. When his matron passed
away, however, she left him just under $10 million (and cut her own children out in the process). That
rocketed Tamang into the upper end of the net-worth scale, even while his always-modest salary went to
zero. [6]
At the other extreme, but still in New York, basketball player Eddy Curry received $10 million to play a
single year’s worth of basketball for the New York Knicks, clearly establishing him in the top echelon of
earners. Still, he’s not worth much. In fact, he’s worth around zero: his house is in foreclosure, and
creditors are suing for his cars. It’s not clear where all the money went, but a pretty good clue comes from
the fact that one of his creditors is charging a jaw-dropping 85 percent interest rate, and that’s only legal
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in Nevada. [7] Finally, it’s clear that the Nepalese butler and the high-rolling basketball player are extreme
cases. More typically, individual worth and salary dovetail: those who make a lot end up having a lot. Still,
the difference between them remains as two dimensions of a star system.
The second distinction to draw through an examination of gaping wealth differences is horizontal versus
vertical. Vertical wealth imbalances measure the distance between top earners and typical ones. It’s the
distance between the hyper rich, a Bill Gates in Seattle or a Carlos Slim in Mexico City, and the guy
pouring cement at a Seattle construction site or the waitress serving tamales in a Mexico City restaurant.
According to Internal Revenue Service’s tax returns, in the fifteen years from 1992 to 2007, the four
hundred wealthiest Americans have seen their average yearly income jump from about $50 million a year,
to $350 million. That’s about $300 million of extra space between the big earners and everyone else.[8] As
a parallel statistic, according to a Hofstra political science professor, “The ratio of executive salary to the
average paycheck during the mid-twentieth century was about thirty to one. In the last decade it has
ranged from three hundred to over five hundred to one.” [9]
Though there are many ways to measure the star system, there’s a common conclusion: in terms of pure
dollars, the rich are getting richer relative to everyone else.
As against the star system’s vertical measure, horizontal expansion refers to the number of fields of
activity where large wealth imbalances are prevalent. Some occupations fairly naturally lead to all or nearnothing
incomes: wildcat oil drilling, hedge-fund managing, movie acting. Other fields seem naturally
inclined to resist divergences. There aren’t many farmers on lists of the hyper wealthy. Plumbers
frequently earn a solid income, but rarely climb above that. The idea of the star system’s horizontal
expansion is that more and more careers resemble the first set of occupations, while fewer and fewer
resemble the second set. It’s difficult to find raw statistics to prove this expansion, but it’s not hard to
locate reasons for suspecting it.
One important reason the star system may be spreading is technological advancement. Justin Bieber, for
example, is a cute adolescent boy from Canada with a nice singing voice and good instincts for catchy pop
licks. Had he appeared forty years ago, he may have become known around his hometown of London,
Ontario. With a lot of long drives and late nights, he may have become a star in his Canadian province and
earned a nice concert income for a while. Thanks to YouTube, however, he was able to jump straight from
singing a few songs a few times in remote Canadian towns to international superstardom. Similarly,
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lawyers that may once have become successful in a single courthouse can now buy cheap, late-night
advertising on a cable network and set up branch offices around an entire state or even the nation. Anyone
sitting at home with a laptop can use the camera to film themselves pitching some product or service and
then display the commercial around the world using Google Ads for only a few pennies. What’s happening
is that people who have a good product or service or pitch are today able to scale up their success very
rapidly and inexpensively. No one is say
2. Define and consider the main ethical arguments reproaching a star system.
Justifying the Star System: Rights
In evaluating the ethics of the star system, three arguments are commonly mounted in favor of respecting
vast wealth disparities:
1. The rights argument
2. The social welfare argument
3. The fairness argument
The rights argument defends the respectability of wealth concentrations by affirming that not allowing
those accumulations is a violation of human freedom. From this perspective, all ethics centers on
individual opportunity: right and wrong is about guaranteeing that free individuals can pursue whatever
goals and as much money as they like on the way to finding their own happiness. Concerns about society’s
overall welfare become secondary and derivative.
Ethics that make freedom the highest value can be used in a thought experiment inspired by the
philosopher Robert Nozick to produce a substantial defense of an economic star system. It goes this way:
1. Imagine that everyone in our society has the same income, everything goes forward as perfect equality,
and no one complains.

2. Next, imagine that NBA superstar Kobe Bryant proposes a new contract with his team. It stipulates that
the ticket price for every home game will go up five dollars, and that extra five bucks goes directly to him.
3. The team owners say, “No.”
4. Kobe says, “I’m going to quit, and go get a job as a gym teacher at the school near my house.”
5. The owners change their mind.
6. Some season ticket holders, angry at the new price, cancel their purchase, but most say, “Yeah, it’s worth
an extra five dollars to see Kobe.”
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7. A total of 17,500 people fit into the Forum, the Los Angeles basketball arena where Kobe Bryant plays,
and he plays forty-one games there each year.
8. Kobe pockets an extra $3,590,000. Annually.
Does anyone have a problem with this? Is there someone who didn’t agree to the arrangement, to this new
society where one guy—Kobe Bryant—is suddenly a lot richer than everyone else? Is there someone who’s
being forced to do something they don’t want to do? Is anyone else being denied the chance to renegotiate
their own contract or search for a different job? Are there any legitimate grounds someone can stand on
to launch a complaint?
title is there, and the lead actors’ names too. Sometimes the director gets big billing. The producer, the
studio, they’re easy to locate. You need to go a long way down the poster, though, and into the fine print,
to find the writer’s name.
Inside the industry’s day-to-day working life, writers don’t get much respect. Longtime agent Nancy
Nigrosh writes that frequently they’re not invited to the screening or any other film-opening festivity. She
paints the situation bleakly: “Unless you hire your own hardworking publicist you’ll be sitting at the kiddy
table and arguing politely with security at the star’s tent at the premier because here’s the other thing:
nobody cares.” [1]
The heart of the reason no one cares is the way films are composed. It’s not like a novel or a poem or even
journalism where one person more or less shepherds a work from beginning to end. Instead, scripts are
written and then rewritten by someone else. Then another author is called in for some further
adjustments and it’s all reworked while the filming actually happens, and by the time the movie’s done,
it’s almost impossible to figure out who deserves credit for which words. In that kind of situation, writers
find themselves in a bad spot when it comes to bargaining for money. It’s true that the studios need
writers, and that provides some leverage, but they don’t usually need any particular writer. There are
exceptions, but since movie scripting is usually an assembly-line process, substituting one with another
probably won’t affect the final product too much in most cases.
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One response to this reality is that workers organize and sell their labor collectively. Conceptually, the
idea is simple. When employers threaten to replace individual workers with others who’ll perform the
same services for even less credit and at a lower price, the other employees—seeing that they could be next
in line to face replacement—stand together in support of their colleague.
Whether the workers are Hollywood writers, Detroit autoworkers assembling cars, or hotel maids
cleaning the rooms and making up the beds, the strategy of forming an alliance to defend common
interests can work by reversing the star system. The star system promotes the general welfare by freeing
individuals to pursue their own interests. In labor unions, individuals promote their own interests by
defending the general welfare or, at least, the collective welfare of their fellow laborers.
Unions: Definition and Quick History
A labor union is an organization of wage earners formed to promote job-related interests, especially with
respect to wages and working conditions. A union can be as informal as a band of salespeople telling the
boss they’re not going to come in the next morning unless the coffeemaker is fixed. Most discussion,
however, surrounds larger and more formalized unions: members pay dues, hold elections to choose
leaders, and in the largest instances, hire a professional management team to advocate for the laborers’
common interests.
Two inflection points mark the history of labor unions in the United States. The Wagner Act (more
formally, the National Labor Relations Act) was approved in Washington, DC, in 1935. It blocked
employers from mistreating or firing workers attempting unionize a shop’s workforce. The act also
prohibited the summary firing of workers who’ve gone out on strike. The freedom to organize, along with
the power to strike effectively, quickly translated into more unions, more walkouts, and two large
organizations guiding the efforts of many smaller trade unions: the American Federation of Labor (AFL)
and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). While it’s true that in the years after World War II
business-damaging strikes grew more frequent, wages also rose and nourished a broad American middle
class. Organized labor came to play a central role in business life.
The maturation of organized labor in the United States harmonized with world events. Political parties
dedicated to workers—especially the hard labor sectors—swept the globe, frequently leading to socialist
and communist societies. Those movements eventually reached US shores. In 1947, communists eager to
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maximize their influence took control of sectors of the United Auto Workers Union, the Detroit collective
making nearly all the cars Americans drove. Pictures from the time—auto workers waving signs
announcing they’re for “Tommie the Commie” seem far out of sync with today’s reality but serve to
remind how quickly the world’s orienting values and ideologies can change. [2]
In that same heated year, 1947, congress responded to sweeping unionization and complaints that the
workers’ organizations had become too powerful with the Taft-Hartley Act. It prohibited the so-called
closed shop, which is a workplace where being hired carries with it the requirement to already be a union
member. It allowed, however, a union shop, a workplace where all employees are required to join or at
least pay the dues associated with joining. Later, the US Supreme Court ruled that even though striking
workers couldn’t be fired for walking off (in accordance with the Wagner Act), they could be permanently
replaced. Over time, this significantly diminished union strength since those going on strike were now
risking their jobs.
As decades rolled forward, the counter union tide on the legal front eventually replicated as important
changes in American industry. Many of the skilled and heavy laboring jobs involving cars, steel, and
similar industries that had responded well to organizational efforts began drying up for at least two
reasons. Increased international trade allowed companies to shift many labor-intensive tasks to other
countries with lower wages. Also, jobs that remained Stateside faced the threat of machines taking over
many functions. Detroit assembly lines formerly composed of blue-collar workers are now dominated by
sophisticated robots. Politically, organized labor also dimmed over the second half of the twentieth
century. In the 1980s, the nation’s air traffic controllers went on strike. President Reagan fired them all
and hired new ones. Reagan also challenged the world’s communist nations; the collapse of countries
explicitly guided by the collective welfare of laborers was rapid and nearly complete.
Today, organized labor unions play roles in most sectors of American economic life, but their influence is
limited, except in a few areas. Government workers continue to be very highly unionized: more than half
of all union laborers in the United States today have government jobs. Unions also remain in small fields
that resist marketplace forces. The National Football League players, for example, are unionized: you can’t
just send their jobs overseas. Also, workers in the health-care field have a fairly high unionization rate:
you can’t replace a nurse with a machine (at least, not yet). In political terms, and though diminished,
unions continue to be a notable force. The single largest outside spender in the 2010 election campaign
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was the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees. AFSCME spent a whopping $90
million (much coming from workers’ dues) to support candidates around the country. Still, with only 1.6
million members, the group is no larger than the United Auto Workers union back in 1970 when US
population was only two-thirds of today’s number. Currently, the UAW has about 400,000 active
members.
Three questions asked about unions in the field of business ethics are:
nearly all

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solidarity
with immigrants coming after him was to set up a free school where new arrivals could learn basic skills
helping them find employment in their new country. Called the Grace Institute, there’s an ethical
solidarity incarnated in the school, one uniting immigrants around their shared experiences and common
hardships. Broad social movements also provide abundant examples of the ethics of solidarity. A case
could be made, for instance, that women and African Americans have a special obligation to unite with
homosexuals seeking workplace equality because women and African Americans too know, and have
shared the suffering of discrimination.
It’s true that the case of Hollywood film writers isn’t so dramatic as immigration or broad job
2011,http://books.google.com/books?id=AUoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31&dq=
uaw+membership+local+600+ford&hl=en&ei=5KbBTKbcNML98Ab01LGdBg&sa=
X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=
onepage&q=uaw%20membership%20local%20600%20ford&f=false.
[3] Michael Cieply and Brookes Barnes, “Writers Say Strike to Start Monday,” New York Times, November 2, 2007,
accessed June 9, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/02/business/media/02cndhollywood.
html?pagewanted=all.
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15.5 Union Strikes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define a labor strike.
2. Consider ethical justifications for striking.
3. Weigh responsibilities set against striking.
4. Consider the rights of employers and strikebreakers.
The Hollywood Writers’ Strike
The most contentious area, both economically and ethically, of union action involves strikes: workers
collectively walking off the jobsite in an attempt to pressure employers to accede to their demands. The
Writers Guild of America (WGA) led one of the most publicized recent walkouts when Hollywood script
writers put down their pencils and closed their laptops—at least officially—in November of 2007. By the
time they returned in early 2008, the economic damage wrought in the Los Angeles basin was massive,
$3.5 billion according to some estimates, but the resolution ultimately satisfied most members of the
moviemaking community.
During the strike, two constellations of ethical issues came to the fore. First, questions involved
 the right for workers to not work,
 the right of employers to find someone who will work,
 the rights of third parties to go on with their lives and work.
The second set of questions involved responses to the strike:
 Who in Hollywood, if anyone, is obligated to support the writers?
 Is it OK to take a striker’s job?
Justifying Not Working
Some Hollywood writers are contracted by faceless studios to churn out rewrites for movies; others
generate TV dramas and soap operas. There’s work to be done inventing jokes for sitcoms like The Office,
and opening monologues for Jay Leno’s Tonight show need to be written a few days every week. As the
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writers’ strike extended, the walkout’s effects beamed into living rooms. Almost immediately, Leno went
into reruns. The Office, which had a few episodes in the can, lasted several weeks. The moviemakers—
many of whom live underneath piles of scripts submitted unsolicited by writers—kept going.
Out on the picket lines, Leno zipped around in his vintage sports car to support the stoppage, and
occasionally stopped to chat with the strikers and crack good-humored jokes. Of course Leno, who makes
millions a year, probably didn’t really need his paychecks. Others in Hollywood, however, live from day to
day and without much room for unemployment. Set designers, prop companies, on-site catering services,
all the people surrounding the now-halted industry saw their income wither. In the face of the injurious

consequences, three arguments nonetheless favor and justify the writers’ walkout.
1. The rights argument in favor of the workers’ strike is direct and convincing for many: all individuals have
a right to not go to work in the morning. Whether we’re talking about a union action or just someone who
wakes up with a hangover, any ethical theory that takes its bearings from individual rights is generally
going to turn in a verdict in favor of the worker’s right to stay home.
2. The last resort argument affirms that workers are justified in striking when three conditions are met:
First, there must be a just cause. The driving issue cannot be petty angers or interpersonal conflicts of
some kind; instead, the motive must be wages or working conditions that are out of step with industry
norms or reasonable expectations. In the writers’ case, this condition may have been met because they
represented one of the few talent sectors not benefitting from payments for programming broadcast over
new media, especially the Internet. Second, there must be proper authorization, which means the workers
themselves must support the action, and have reached a well-deliberated decision. In the writer’s case,
most did support the action, which had been planned for months. Third, the strike must be a last resort,
meaning attempts to find solutions must’ve been fully explored. Here too writers met the condition as
long negotiations had explored most possible solutions.
3. The marketplace argument is the rawest of the justifications for striking, and it answers the ethical
question with economic facts. If workers can get away with striking, the reasoning goes, and then they’re
justified. The argument is less flippant than it sounds. If workers really are being underpaid for their
labors, then when an employer seeks others to replace those who’ve walked out, none will emerge, at least
none capable of doing the work well. On the other hand, if market conditions determine that the striking
workers are demanding more than they legitimately should within the current economic context, then
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when an employer tries to replace strikers with fresh hires, the cost of doing so will be less than the wage
increase the strikers are demanding.
On the other side, the kinds of arguments normally set up to obligate striking workers to return to their
stations involve responsibilities to the larger community:
1. The public safety argument applies only in selected situations. The famous air-traffic controllers’ strike in
the 1980s involved the safety of fliers. Similarly, police officers, firefighters, and similar may find it
difficult to justify a full-fledged strike given the serious suffering that may result. There are many
borderline cases, however. For example, in Tennessee some fire departments collect fees directly from
those they protect. In one case, a man who hadn’t paid found that his house was on fire and called the
department; they responded, but only to protect nearby homes from the fire’s spread. They watched the
flaming home burn to the foundation without intervening because the bill hadn’t been paid. Of course, the
situation would’ve been different had a person been trapped inside. In this case, however, the loss and
dispute was entirely about money. [1]
2. The public welfare argument against workers going on strike weighs in when strikes affect third parties,
people outside the initial dispute. The scriptwriters’ walkout, for example, left a large chunk of Hollywood
unemployed. The most rudimentary way to elaborate the argument is simply to note that the suffering
caused across the entire industry by the five-month writers’ strike almost surely outweighed the benefits
the writers finally obtained. It should also be remembered, however, that if some workers somewhere
don’t draw the line against owners and employers, those employers will have no incentive to not
push everyone’s wages down, ultimately affecting the welfare of most all the industry’s participants.
3. The immediate welfare argument against the writers’ strike finds support in an ethics of care. An ethics
of care values most highly an individual’s immediate social web; concern for those people who are nearest
outweighs abstract rules or generalized social concerns. In the case of the Hollywood writers’ strike, the
suffering incurred by families and friends related to particular strikers may be taken to outweigh any
benefits the broad union collective won from the action.
Finally, it’s important to note that strikes don’t need to be long-term walkouts. The dynamic and ethics
surrounding the refusal to work change when, for example, a union decides to go on strike for only a
single day as a way of pressuring management.
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Standing in Line and Crossing It: The Ethics of Supporting Strikes and
Breaking Them
The Hollywood writers’ strike featured some big-name backing. Jay Leno cruised around in his Bugatti;
Steve Carell, star of The Office, refused to cross the picket lines; and Sally Field mingled with writers in
the Disney Studios lot. These shows of support scored public relations points and provoked this question:
what obligation do workers in related fields hold to support strikers?
The range of responses corresponds well with those already outlined to justify the unionization of workers
in a particular shop.
 One way to oblige workers in related fields to support strikers is the argument from fairness. When
workers in a certain industry strike and win concessions, those gains may be cited by other workers as
justifying their own demands. In fact, in Hollywood the writers themselves had used this strategy in the
past: instead of going on strike, they’d waited for the directors union (Directors Guild of America) to
negotiate demands with the major studios and then used those results to make their own case for
concessions. The argument for supporting striking workers based on fairness is that all workers for a
particular company or across an industry may well benefit when one group makes gains, and if that’s so,
then those other groups also have a responsibility to support the strikers when they’re sacrificing.
 A second argument is based on solidarity, on the idea that an alliance between workers in an industry is
ethically natural: there’s an obligation to share in a struggle when facing similar challenges. Because other
members of the Hollywood community are uniquely positioned to understand the realities and hardships
of screenwriting life, they have a duty to act on that empathy.
As events transpired, the WGA did, in fact, receive wide support from across Hollywood, but the solidarity
was far from complete. As this outburst from a writer’s blog shows, some network studios tried to keep
their soap operas in production by hiring strikebreakers, or scabs, as they’re known to picketers:
The scab writer’s work under fake names, work from home and use different email addresses so
only the executive producer knows the real identities of the scabs. These tend to be experienced
soap writers who aren’t currently on a show. They are then promised employment after the
strike is over. While they’re scabbing, they get paid less than union writers. [2]
This under-the-table scripting captures a conflict inherent in the union’s attempt to use economic force
against employers. On one side, by cutting off their labor, strikers are trying to win concessions through
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economic force. But their success depends on the suspension of basic economic rules: as this blogger is
admitting, there are scriptwriters out there willing to work at current wages for the studios. It sounds like
they may even be willing to work for less.
For these secretive scriptwriters, what ethical justifications can be mounted for what is, in essence, picketline
crossing? The blog post decrying scab workers actually rallied some to post arguments in the
strikebreakers’ defense. One comes from a poster named Jake: “Maybe he [the blogger writing the original
post complaining about strikebreakers] has unlimited funds somewhere and can stay out of work forever,
but some need to support themselves now.” [3]
The argument here is that we all have fundamental duties to ourselves that must be served before
deferring to others. It’s not, in other words, that scriptwriters should feel no obligation to their colleagues,
but all of us have a deeper responsibility to our own welfare (and possibly to that of our family members
who may depend on us), and that responsibility takes precedence when the situation becomes extreme,
when going without work represents more than just an inconvenience.
Another argument wraps through the following exchange between two blog readers. The first, who
registers his comment anonymously, writes, “I’m a little amazed by some of these comments…Do you guys
[who support strikebreakers] not know about unions? Do you not understand what it means to cross a
picket line?…People need to work for just (as in fair) pay.” [4]
This response comes from a poster named Tim: “Anonymous said, ‘Do you not understand what it means
to cross a picket line?’ Yes, it means you are trying to work for someone who wants to pay you. In moral
terms, it’s just a voluntary mutually beneficial exchange that for the most part is no one else’s business.
Members of a union do and should have the right to refuse to provide a service, but they don’t have a right
to prevent others from providing the service.” [5]
Tim’s argument is based on the principle of free agency and the ethics of freedom. According to him, what
are morally right is any action particular scriptwriters and studio owners agree to undertake. The only
ethical obligation individuals have is to not violate the freedom of others and, according to Tim; everyone
involved in this strikebreaking is acting freely without stopping others from doing the same. The strikers,
like the strikebreakers, may go to work—or not go—whenever they like. To the extent that’s right, ethical
objections shouldn’t be raised against either choice.
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The key phrase in Tim’s response is that the strikebreaking writers’ actions are “no one else’s business.”
Those defending the union could choose to intervene here and assert that the claim is fundamentally
wrong. Ethics depends on compassionately taking account of others’ interests, and factoring them into
your own decisions: what writers decide to do must serve not only their own but also the general welfare.
Possibly, Tim could respond to this by asserting that in a market economy the best way to serve the
general welfare is for individuals to pursue their own success. There are responses to this argument too,
and the discussion continues.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A rights argument and a marketplace argument may lend ethical support to workers’ decision to strike.
 Ethical arguments against striking may derive from broad social concerns, or justifiably privileging one’s
own interests.
 Arguments in favor of supporting strikers from outside the union may stand on conceptions of fairness
or solidarity.
 Both strikebreakers and employers may claim the right to bypass union demands based on economic
realities, or their rights as free agents.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the marketplace argument in favor of the right for workers to strike.
2. How could a union worker ethically justify not joining companions on the picket lines?
3. Outline an argument from fairness that could be made against strikebreakers.
4. Sketch two arguments that could be made in favor of independent writers swooping in and taking union
jobs when the SGA goes out on strike.
[1] Jason Hibbs, “Firefighters Watch as Home Burns to the Ground,” WPSD, September 29, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011, http://www.wpsdlocal6.com/news/local/Firefighters-watch-as-home-burns-to-the-ground-104052668.html.
[2] John Aboud, “Scabbing Doesn’t Pay (For Long),” United Hollywood (blog), November 8, 2007, accessed June 9,
2011, http://unitedhollywood.blogspot.com/2007/11/scabbing-doesn-pay-for-long.html.
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[3] Jake, November 8, 2007 (6:44 a.m.), comment on John Aboud, “Scabbing Doesn’t Pay (For Long),” United
Hollywood Blog, November 8, 2007,http://unitedhollywood.blogspot.com/2007/11/scabbing-doesn-pay-forlong.
html.
[4] Anonymous, November 8, 2007 (8:15 a.m.), comment on John Aboud, “Scabbing Doesn’t Pay (For
Long),” United Hollywood Blog, November 8, 2007,http://unitedhollywood.blogspot.com/2007/11/scabbingdoesn-
pay-for-long.html.
[5] Tim, November 8, 2007 (8:32 a.m.), comment on Anonymous, “Scabbing Doesn’t Pay (For Long),” United
Hollywood Blog, November 8, 2007,http://unitedhollywood.blogspot.com/2007/11/scabbing-doesn-pay-forlong.
html.
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15.6 Case Studies
Jim Webb’s Speech
Source: Photo courtesy of Mike Baird, http://www.flickr.com/photos/mikebaird/2202443907.
At the height of the American economic boom running from 2000 to 2008, a freshly elected senator from
Virginia gave a sobering speech. He said,
When one looks at the health of our economy, it’s almost as if we are living in two different
countries. The stock market is at an all-time high, and so are corporate profits. But these
benefits are not being fairly shared. When I graduated from college, the average corporate CEO
made 20 times what the average worker did; today, it’s nearly 400 times. In other words, it
takes the average worker more than a year to make the money that his or her boss makes in one
day. In short, the middle class of this country, our historic backbone and our best hope for a
strong society in the future, is losing its place at the table. Our workers know this, through
painful experience. [1]
QUESTIONS
1. What is the star system?
2. According to Senator Webb (and doing the math), when he was in college around 1966, a
corporate CEO had to labor eighteen days to make the money the average worker earned in
about a year. Now, CEOs only need a day to reach a worker’s yearly total.
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o What is vertical wealth imbalance?
o In terms of the days a CEO must labor to net the average worker’s yearly pay, where does the
star system line get drawn? Webb seems to think it’s somewhere between eighteen days and
one day, but where would you draw the distinction? How would you justify your decision?
3. Webb says the “middle class of this country” is disappearing. How does this claim relate to the idea of
horizontal wealth imbalances?
4. When Webb asserts that the benefits of a healthy economy aren’t being “fairly shared,” he’s making an
ethical claim, saying the wealth concentration is wrong. He was speaking on national TV and so didn’t
have time to flesh things out, but how could an argument be formulated to support his claim?
5. Jim Webb is a United States senator. When the United States was founded, there was about one
senator for every twenty-five thousand people. Today, it’s one in three million. The salary of a
US senator is $175,000; the salary of the average American worker is about $40,000.
o Besides money, what kinds of compensation do you imagine Webb gets for his job?
o Do you believe Webb’s compensation (salary plus other nonmonetary benefits) qualifies him as
a star? Why or why not?
o Does the fact that Webb represents more constituents than the original senators convert into a
case that Webb’s salary should be higher relative to his constituents than the salary granted to
senators two hundred years ago? Explain.
o Make the case that Webb has an ethical responsibility to donate a significant part of his salary to public service causes.

6. Part of the reason Webb’s talk lacked specifics was that, as a US senator, he doesn’t want to
offend any particular person or large company. (He probably wants their money for his
reelection campaign, or at least he doesn’t want them funding his opponent.) Others, however,
who share his opinion about wage imbalances aren’t similarly constrained. One notable example
comes from the web page Daily Kos, a politically oriented site with a huge readership and
located on the left fringe of American politics, somewhere between rowdy and rabid. On that
page, the following point was added to Webb’s speech:
As an example of this inequality, look no further than Ford Motor Company. Just this
week, Ford announced a staggering $12.7 billion loss, the highest in company history.
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This came after a year in which the company announced that it was cutting more than
40,000 jobs (30,000 of them union jobs). So what to do in a company that’s failed to
deliver innovative products to the market, completely misjudged consumer trends, and
managed itself into a fiscal bind? You award bonuses to the top management. [2]
The web page went on to explain that Ford CEO Alan Mulally would be giving performance
bonuses to his top executives because, according to Mulally, “You have to keep the talented
people you really need.”
o Just from the provided facts, why might someone be suspicious that CEO Mulally participates in
crony capitalism? How might he respond to the charge?
o Justify the Daily Kos attack on Mulally’s bonuses in terms of general social welfare, and in terms
of the duty to beneficence.
o Make the case that the bonuses are justified in ethical terms with the language of rights.
o Through the language of rights, argue that those who criticize the bonuses—like writers at Daily
Kos—are ethically despicable.
7. Consider these four jobs: US senator, political commentator on a widely read web page
(regardless of whether it happens to tilt left or right), CEO of Ford, and union worker on a car
assembly line.
o Who do you expect would earn most and least were wages divided only by market forces?
Loosely, how would wages be apportioned? Would the differences reach star system
proportions?
o How would you rank their wage order in terms of value generated for society? Loosely, how
would wages be apportioned? Would the differences reach star system proportions?
o How would you rank their wage order in terms of effort? Loosely, how would wages be
apportioned? Would the differences reach star system proportions?
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First You Get the Money…
Source: Photo courtesy of xelusionx, http://www.flickr.com/photos/xelusionx/452851416.
The film Scarface cost $25 million to make and has earned back about $200 million so far. The story
follows Tony Montana as he enters the cocaine dealing business. His mentor tells him that to survive over
the long term you’ve got to fly under the radar and stay small. Comfortably wealthy, yes, but wildly rich,
no. Montana isn’t so sure. Later he decides the advice is directly bad, kills the mentor who gave it to him,
and expands his business as far and as fast as he can. As moviegoers learn at the film’s end, the mentor
was probably right.
QUESTIONS

1. Though the initial reviews were mixed, time has proven the film’s popular appeal. More than
twenty years after its release, Scarface continues to be a rental favorite, a standard campus
feature, and a late-night TV standard.
o How can the notion of the general welfare be used to justify giving big bucks to the stars making
the film: actor Al Pacino, director Brian De Palma, and writer Oliver Stone?
o Can you form an argument against the concentration of money in the hands of a very few
people that would work equally well against Al Pacino’s (presumed) wealth and Tony
Montana’s?
2. Given the way Montana got wealthy, can the duty to beneficence argument against the star system still
be applied to him? Why or why not?
3. Possibly the movie’s most repeated line is Al Pacino as Tony Montana explaining that to be
successful in America, “First you get the money, then you get the power, then you get the
women.”
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o What is Aristotle’s theory of envy?
o Does the story the movie tells about Montana’s life—coming to America with nothing as an
immigrant and getting ahead by killing and drug dealing—make you more or less envious of his
success (at least the money and power parts), or does it not make any difference?
o How does envy factor into ethical considerations of the star system?
4. Amado Carrillo Fuentes—better known as Lord of the Skies—was a serious innovator before he
died in a Mexico City Hospital during a plastic surgery procedure to transform his appearance.
While everyone else in his profession was flying small Cessna-like aircraft around Latin America
and over the border into the States, he broke every limit by buying full-size Boeing passenger
planes, hollowing them out, filling them with cocaine, and flying multimillion-dollar shipments.
Though he never made the Forbes list of the world’s most powerful and wealthy (unlike other
traffickers from the same Mexican state of Sinaloa, including Joaquín Guzmán), there’s no doubt
that Carrillo Fuentes got extraordinarily wealthy by bringing innovation to the cocaine business.
Bill Gates got extraordinarily wealthy by bringing innovation to the software business. One
argument frequently presented in favor of outsized rewards in the business world is that it can
stimulate innovative ideas. Does the fact that creativity in the business world can do social
good and social harm weaken this argument in favor of the star system? Explain.
The Delta Vote
Source: Photo courtesy of Anthony Easton, http://www.flickr.com/photos/pinkmoose/2955932263.
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When Delta Airlines absorbed Northwest Airlines in 2008, the expanded Delta employed about twenty
thousand flight attendants or FAs as they’re called in the industry. The thirteen thousand Delta FAs
weren’t unionized; the seven thousand that came over from Northwest were.
The nation’s largest flight attendant union, the Association of Flight Attendants (AFA) saw the
opportunity to build membership numbers and lobbied the united workforce to unionize. The question
went to a vote and the results were excruciatingly close: votes in favor fell 328 short out of 18,760 cast.
Subsequently, the USA Today published a roundup of media reports and readers reactions. [3]

QUESTIONS
1. One argument in favor of joining labor unions works from fairness, the idea that if workers
are benefitting from the work done by a collective, they should sign up and contribute their
share of the dues required to pay for the lawyers and the negotiators a major union needs to
operate.
o How does the following reaction to the “no” vote intersect with the fairness argument? Flight
attendant Cindy Hanks said, “I’m ecstatic. There is no reason for a union at Delta. I get paid
more than my co-workers [who worked for Northwest before the merger]. I have an open-door
policy with my management. Whenever I have a complaint, I am listened to, and there is always
a resolution. I’m not left in the dark.” [4]
2. One person added this comment below the story about the culture around Delta: “Nobody cares
about workers’ rights, including the workers.” [5]
One argument in favor of joining labor unions works from a notion of solidarity. With respect to
labor unions, what’s the solidarity argument for joining the FA union at Delta?
3. Delta spokeswoman Betsy Talton reacted this way to the “no” vote, “We have said all along that
we believe our direct relationship works well for our people and our company,”
o One argument against joining a labor union is the duty to individuality derived from the right to
free agency. What is the right to free agency? What is the derived duty to individuality?
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o How can Talton’s reaction be buttressed in ethical terms by reference to the right and derived
duty?
4. The vote at Delta was a secret ballot. What is card check legislation, and what does it do? How might
that law have changed the results at Delta?
5. Some of the responses to the Delta vote didn’t concern the specific FA union but the question of
unions generally. For example, one commenter believes a stigma attaches to union
membership, a bad one. As he puts it, “I have read pro union people are lazy and want
protection.” Another commentator adds that unions have, “basically destroyed the auto
industry and the steel industry.” [6]
How can this criticism of unions and union workers be converted into an ethical argument in
favor of an economic star system?
6. A person identified as dinstinctM wrote, “Labor unions BUILT the American middle class. The
middle class that is shrinking as unions have been decimated.” [7]
This is an economic claim. Assume it’s true. How can it be converted into an ethical claim in
favor of the FA union?
Responding to a Transit Strike
Source: Photo courtesy of Neilhooting, http://www.flickr.com/photos/neilhooting/2424703385.
The web page titled “How to Commute By Bicycle, All of a Sudden” begins this way: “There is a transit
workers’ strike in NYC today. If you need to get somewhere, consider riding your bike. Even though it’s 22
degrees right now (8:33 EST), this is not a crazy suggestion.” [8]
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When you need to preface a suggestion with the assurance that it’s not crazy, you can be pretty sure that
the situation is bad.
The New York City transit strike began on December 20, 2005, and ran three days. Representing the
subway operators, bus drivers, and some related personnel, there was the Transport Workers Union,
Local 100 (TWU). On the other side, representing the city—and the traveling, tax-paying public—there
was the Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA). Wages and retirement age were the main issues. The MTA
argued (correctly) that the transit workers’ wages were much higher than the national norm, and their
retirement age extremely low. The workers argued (correctly) that the job of driving in New York City was
more stressful than in most other places. When negotiations failed, public transportation stopped a few
days before Christmas, leaving millions of daily commuters stranded.
For some commuters, the bike became an option. In the abstract—sitting in a warm room reading about
it—the possibility doesn’t sound so bad, get some good exercise and brisk fresh air on the way to work and
back. There are real problems, though. The air can be dangerously cold and streets in winter are icy. It
also needs to be remembered that the sun goes down early in December, so people biking home at night
along the roadside are pedaling in the dark. Falls are common. Falls in front of oncoming cars are
especially bad.
QUESTIONS
1. The transit workers strike was actually illegal. After a similar walkout years before, the Taylor
Law had been enacted; it barred transportation workers from leaving their posts and
implemented arbitration methods for settling disputes. When the workers ignored the law, a
judge hit them with fines and sentenced their leaders to short jail terms.
o In the face of the strike’s illegality, how can a rights argument be mounted to ethically justify the
walkout?
o Is the rights argument affected by the fact that many commuters suffered?
2. The “last resort argument” justifying a workers strike is activated when three conditions are
met: (1) There must be a just cause; (2) there must be proper authorization; and (3) the strike
must be a last resort—that is, attempts to find solutions must’ve been fully explored.
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In this case, the transport workers national union actually ordered the local to go back to work.
The national union, in other words, didn’t authorize the strike, but the actual workers on the
scene did. Does this count as proper authorization? In a union organization, which, ultimately,
gets to decide whether a strike is appropriate, the organizing management selected to speak for
the collective, or the individual workers on the ground? Explain.
3. What is the public safety argument against a union going out on strike? From the information

provided, how could it be implemented in this case?
o How would the public safety argument against the strike differ from the public welfare
argument?
o In general terms, is there public welfare argument that could be sketched in favor of the strike?
Air and Bus Traffic: Stars and Collectives
Source: Photo courtesy of Ekavet, http://www.flickr.com/photos/ekavet/3680866253.
The early 1980s were seismic years in American business. Newly elected President Reagan promoted
waves of deregulation legislation, and the openness loosed a breed of entrepreneurs bringing innovative
goods and services to the marketplace so rapidly that entire segments of business life erupted in disorder.
One especially affected area was transportation, and one very affected transporter was the venerable
Greyhound bus lines. This report from San Jose State University summarizes:
Deregulation of the transportation industry made the competition for passengers stiff. New
entrepreneurs who paid low wages entered the business and offered fare prices much lower
than the more established inter-city lines. The newly deregulated airline industry made things
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even worse for Greyhound. Low-cost passenger airline carriers sprang up. People Express, for
example, charged only $23 for a flight between New York City and Buffalo. Greyhound charged
$41 for the trip. A flight by Southwest Airlines from San Francisco to Phoenix was only $60,
compared to a Greyhound’s bus ticket to the same location costing $79. [9]
When a higher-quality service (a fast plane ride) actually costs less than a lower-quality service (a slow
bus trip), the simple rules of economics are, sooner or later, going to put the bus company out of its
misery.
To survive, Greyhound had to cut its prices, which meant cutting costs. The prices of buses and gasoline
and similar were fairly fixed, leaving wages to be targeted. Greyhound went to the workers collective, the
local Amalgamated Transit Union, and proposed a 9.5 percent wage cut.
The answer was no. Greyhound insisted. A strike ensued.
Greyhound was prepared. They’d already recruited more than a thousand new hires in anticipation of the
walkout, and agreed to pay them the salary the union had refused. A tremendous segment of business was
lost while the company struggled to bring still more drivers aboard but, eventually, it became clear that
the union would have to break, which it did.
In the aftermath, a stinging article was written: “Leave the Slave-Driving to Us.” That’s a play on the

Greyhound advertising line “Leave the Driving to Us,” and it pretty clearly displays where the author
comes down on the ethics of labor walkouts broken by replacement workers. [10]
QUESTIONS
1. From the “Leave the Slave-Driving to Us” article: “After the strike got underway the Bus Lines
tried to run scab buses. In response, the striking Greyhound workers carried out militant actions
that were effective as far as they went. For example, pickets from Local 1225 in San Francisco,
together with some supporters, tried to block the departure of buses from the 7th Street depot
in downtown San Francisco. There was then a cop attack on the picket line and a melee ensued.
Only one bus left the station. It soon experienced a collision with another vehicle (the driver of
the other vehicle just happened to be a striking Greyhound driver) and it was forced to retreat
to the S.F. depot.”
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o When the striking Greyhound driver drove his car or pickup into the bus, he probably damaged
his own vehicle. Who should pay for the repairs? Justify.
o Is it possible to argue that, ethically, Greyhound should pay? Explain.
o Who should pay to repair the damaged Greyhound bus? Why?
o The “cop attack” was, presumably, police officers clearing strikers from the public road. The
police are frequently unionized. Do they have, as union workers, any responsibility to leave the
strikers alone?
2. From the “Leave the Slave-Driving to Us” article: “During any strike material pressures (rent or
house payments, utility bills, RV financing, etc.) may influence strikers’ decisions. Since
Greyhound is not merely a bus line, but a conglomerate with revenues from many lines of
business, its capacity to bear losses from a strike is much greater than that of individual strikers
to bear the loss of wages. Even those who have substantial savings may run short during a long
strike. To succeed, they had to convince other transport workers and their unions to strike in
sympathy with them. But of course, that’s illegal under existing contracts and laws. But that only
means that the ranks needed to take matters into their own hands from the very beginning. The

rank and file did not have to respect the law.”
o What is Greyhound’s structural economic advantage over the workers?
o Does the Greyhound economic advantage provide an ethical justification for the workers to
illegally (in terms of contractual commitments) try to get others in related fields to strike in
support of the Greyhound workers? Explain.
3. The marketplace test showed the strike was, in purely economic terms of supply and demand,
not justified. The company was able to find workers at the wages it wanted to offer.
o Ethically, does the economic reality justify the strikebreakers’ actions in crossing the picket
lines? Explain.
o The “Leave the Slave-Driving to Us” author considers these strikebreakers to be slaves. What is
the ethical argument behind this insult?
4. From the “Leave the Slave-Driving to Us” article: “‘Greyhound Lines Chair Frank Nagotte pulled
down a hefty $447,000 in salary and benefits’ in 1983 [that’s 1,004,000 in today’s dollars]. In
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general, Greyhound management was slated to receive a 7–10% salary/benefit increase. Despite
the competition from lower air fares cited by Greyhound management, the Bus Lines division
alone earned a profit that has been estimated at $5 million in the first nine months of 1983.”
o The chairman’s salary and benefits was about one million in today’s dollars. In terms of basic
rights, how could he justify taking that mountain of money home after firing the drivers?
o In terms of the value his work generated for society, how could chairman Nagotte justify taking
the mountain of money home after firing the drivers?
o In terms of his responsibilities as chairman, how could Nagotte justify taking the mountain of
money home after firing the drivers?
o What ethical argument could the drivers use to justify demanding that the chairman take a
salary and benefit cut in line with the one he was asking from the drivers?
5. The fundamental cause of the Greyhound problem was competition from new transportation
companies providing better service at lower cost, including Southwest Airlines, founded by
Rollin King and Herb Kelleher. They’re both bright stars in the American economic star system.
o Make the case that King and Kelleher have an ethical obligation to support the Greyhound
drivers who lost their jobs. What is the case? What kind of support do they owe?
o Convert the Greyhound experience into an ethical argument that no employee at Southwest
should seek to unionize.
[1] Jim Webb, “Democratic Response of Senator Jim Webb to the President’s State of the Union Address,” New
York Times, January 23, 2007, accessed June 9, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/23/washington/23webbtranscript.
html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
[2] Mark Sumner, “Jim Webb and Economic Reform,” Daily Kos, January 26, 2007, accessed June 9,
2011, http://www.dailykos.com/storyonly/2007/1/26/295137/-Jim-Webb-and-Economic-Reform.
[3] Ben Mutzabaugh, “Delta Attendants Vote Against Union,” USA Today, November 4, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011, http://travel.usatoday.com/flights/post/2010/11/delta-attendants-vote/129933/1.
[4] Ben Mutzabaugh, “Delta Attendants Vote Against Union,” USA Today, November 4, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011, http://travel.usatoday.com/flights/post/2010/11/delta-attendants-vote/129933/1.
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[5] distinctM, November 4, 2010 (11:02 a.m.), comment on Ben Mutzabaugh, “Delta Attendants Vote Against
Union,” USA Today, November 4, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011,http://travel.usatoday.com/flights/post/2010/11/delta-attendants-vote/129933/1.
[6] Timatl2002, November 4, 2010 (10:08 p.m.), comment on Ben Mutzabaugh, “Delta Attendants Vote Against
Union,” USA Today, November 4, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011,http://travel.usatoday.com/flights/post/2010/11/delta-attendants-vote/129933/1.
[7] distinctM, November 5, 2010 (3:17 p.m.), comment on Ben Mutzabaugh, “Delta Attendants Vote Against
Union,” USA Today, November 4, 2010, accessed June 9,
2011,http://travel.usatoday.com/flights/post/2010/11/delta-attendants-vote/129933/1.
[8] “How to Commute By Bicycle, All of a Sudden,” Days of Leisure (blog), accessed June 9,
2011, http://www.daysofleisure.com/writing/How_to_commute_by_bicycle,_ all_of_a_sudden.html.
[9] Herbert Oestreich, “The Great Greyhound Strikes,” Mineta Transportation Institute College of Business, San
Jose State University, September 2001, 2001, accessed June 9,
2011, http://www.angelfire.com/al/silverball/strikes.html.
[10] Daniel, “1983: Leave the Slave-Driving to Us—Chris Fillmer,” Libcom.org, June 17, 2007, accessed June 9,
2011, http://libcom.org/library/1983-leave-slave-driving-us-chris-fillmer.
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Question 2: Mathematics

STUDENT NAME:

ST PATRICK’S COLLEGE, GYMPIE.

MATHEMATICS A
Year 12
Semester 2,
2018.

Item 4

EXTENDED MODELLING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
TASK

Summative

Topic:
14 Navigation.

TEACHER:

___________________
CONDITIONS:

This is an individual task.
Time allowed : 3•5 weeks.

Issue date : Week 3
Due date : Week 6
Two lessons per week will be allocated for individual work on this
assessment item. This time can be used for consultation with your
teacher.
It is the student’s responsibility to submit assessment no later than the
due date to ensure course completion and the awarding of a level of
achievement.
The St Patrick’s College Assignment Policy is detailed in the Student Diary
on page xiii.
The criteria and relevant standard assessed by each question appears in
brackets after the question.
All working must be shown, accompanied by justification or explanations
where necessary.
Students are to make and store a full copy (electronic or otherwise) of
their submission.

STANDARD AWARDED:

Knowledge and Procedures

Modelling and Problem Solving

Communication and Justification

CCEs:

5. Interpreting the meaning of pictures/illustrations.
6. Interpreting the meaning of tables, diagrams, maps or graphs.
7. Translating from one form to another.
57. Manipulating/operating/using equipment.
22. Structuring/organizing math argument.
33. Reaching conclusion consistent with a given assumptions.
35. Extrapolating.
48. Justifying.
20. Setting out/presenting/arranging/displaying.
37. Applying progression of steps to achieve required answer.

AUTHENTICATION STATEMENT:

I did not receive significant help in producing my final submission, from another student, an electronic source, a teacher and/or adult.

Signed: ___________________________________________________

STANDARDS DESCRIPTORS: 12 MATHS A.
ITEM 4 : EXTENDED MPS TASK.
SEM 2, 2018.

CRIT STANDARD A

The student’s work has the following characteristics: STANDARD B

The student’s work has the following characteristics: STANDARD C

The student’s work has the following characteristics: STANDARD D

The student’s work has the following characteristics: STANDARD E

The student’s work has the following characteristics:
KP1 – accurate use of rules and formulae in simple through to complex situations – accurate use of rules and formulae in simple situations or use of rules and formulae in complex situations – use of rules and formulae in simple routine situations – use of given rules and formulae in simple rehearsed situations – attempted use of given rules and formulae in simple rehearsed situations
KP2 – application of simple through to complex sequences of mathematical procedures in routine and non-routine situations – application of simple sequences of mathematical procedures in non-routine situations or complex sequences in routine situations – application of simple sequences of mathematical procedures in routine situations – application of simple sequences of mathematical procedures in simple rehearsed situations – attempted use of simple sequences of mathematical procedures in simple rehearsed situations
MPS2 – investigation of alternative solutions and/or procedures to complex routine through to simple non-routine problems – investigation of alternative solutions and/or procedures to routine problems
MPS3 – informed decisions based on mathematical reasoning in complex routine through to simple non-routine situations – informed decisions based on mathematical reasoning in routine situations – informed decisions based on mathematical reasoning in simple routine situations
MPS4 – reflection on the effectiveness of mathematical models including recognition of the strengths and limitations of the model – recognition of the strengths and limitations of the model in simple situations
CJ1 – accurate and appropriate use of mathematical terminology and conventions in simple non-routine through to complex routine situations – accurate and appropriate use of mathematical terminology and conventions in simple non-routine and/or complex routine situations – appropriate use of mathematical terminology and conventions in simple routine situations – use of mathematical terminology and conventions in simple rehearsed situations – use of mathematical terminology and conventions in simple rehearsed situations
CJ2 – organisation and presentation of information in a variety of representations in simple non-routine through to complex routine situations – organisation and presentation of information in a variety of representations in simple non-routine and /or complex routine situations – organisation and presentation of information in a variety of representations in simple routine situations – presentation of information in simple rehearsed situations
CJ3 – analysis and translation of information displayed from one representation to another in complex routine situations – analysis and translation of information displayed from one representation to another in simple routine situations – translation of information displayed from one representation to another in simple routine situations
CJ4 – use of mathematical reasoning to develop logical sequences in simple non-routine through to complex routine situations using everyday and/or mathematical language – use of mathematical reasoning to develop logical sequences in simple non-routine and/or complex routine situations using everyday and/or mathematical language – development of logical sequences in simple routine situations using everyday and/or mathematical language
CJ5 – justification of the reasonableness of results obtained through technology or other means

The information below is to be used for Q1, Q2 and Q3, along with Map 1 – The Whitsundays.

A race course has been designed off the coast of the islands of the Whitsundays. The race is for small sailing boats capable of maintaining speeds of approximately 12knots in the weather conditions typical of this region. The information below describes the locations of the buoys that mark the start/finish line and the four buoys to be used to define the legs of the race.

the Start/Finish line is marked by two buoys. One buoy is located at the co-ordinates
(149° 51•0’ E, 20° 02•2’S) and the other is located at (149° 51•0’ E, 20° 02•6’S)

the Blue buoy is due west of the Hayman Radio Mast and on a transit line from
Mt Merkara and Pioneer Rocks

the Green buoy is located so that the Hook Is Lighthouse is on a bearing of 065°T and
Hannah Pt is on a bearing of 140°T.

the Yellow buoy is located so that the WKRP Radio Mast is on a bearing of 060°T and
Nara Light is on a bearing of 330°T.

the Red buoy is located so that Reef Pt is on a bearing of 110°T and South Head is on a
bearing of 210°T.

Q1 On Map 1 – The Whitsundays, locate all the buoys that define the race course.

Note : All construction lines must remain visible, including north lines.
: A meticulous approach is required, as errors of measurement will affect the
grades allocated to your solutions.

KP2 C D E CJ1 C D E CJ3 C

Q2 The race committee decide on a race consisting of six legs:

Leg 1 : Start line to anticlockwise around the blue buoy.
Leg 2 : Blue buoy to anticlockwise around the green buoy.
Leg 3 : Green buoy to clockwise around the yellow buoy.
Leg 4 : Yellow buoy to clockwise around the red buoy.
Leg 5 : Red buoy clockwise around the blue buoy.
Leg 6 : Blue buoy to finish line.

For each leg of the course, determine a heading, a length and an estimate of the time
required for the completion of the leg.

Also, produce an estimate for the expected duration of the entire race and comment on
the reliability of this estimate.

Note : All construction lines must remain visible, including north lines.
: A meticulous approach is required, as errors of measurement will affect the
grades allocated to your solutions.

KP1 C D E MPS3 C

CJ1 C D E CJ2 C D

Q3 Before the race, a powered boat is taken out to investigate the direction of the
prevailing current in the region’s waters . The aim is to sail on a preset course and determine whether the boat has been taken off course by currents.

The starting point has South Reef Rocks on a bearing of 010°T and Hook Is Lighthouse on a bearing of 100°T. The Hook Is Radio Mast is clearly visible from the starting point and the timed run started at 10:30am.

The boat’s log indicates a course of 150°T and a speed of 8•8knots. At 11:15am, the Hook
Is Radio Mast is now visible on a bearing of 040°T.

By locating the boat’s final position on the map, determine how many degrees off-course the boat has been carried and calculate the direction and speed of the current. Justify your solutions.

Note : All construction lines must remain visible, including north lines.
: A meticulous approach is required, as errors of measurement will affect the
grades allocated to your solutions.

KP2 B C D E MPS3 B C MPS4 B

CJ1 B C D E CJ2 B C D CJ4 B C

The information below is to be used for Q4, Q5 and Q6, along with Map 2 – Hypothetical Bay.

Q4 Your location is currently : ________________________________

and you are travelling on a course of : ________________________________

You travel on this course for five nautical miles and during this short trip, you make regular and careful observations of the angle of elevation to the top of Critchley Peak (altitude 1 140m).

Produce a graph of “Angle of Elevation Vs Distance travelled along course” for your journey to identify largest angle of elevation that would be obtained.

Then identify the exact location(s) producing the greatest angle of elevation and clearly explain the reasons for those locations producing a maximum angle.

KP2 A B C D E MPS2 A B MPS3 A B C

CJ1 A B C D E CJ4 A B C CJ5 A

Q5 A local yacht club is having its monthly race day and the race is already underway. Six boats are approaching the finish line – a straight line between Paula’s Light and Fairway Beacon.

At 3:00pm, the boats in first place through to sixth place report their positions, bearing
and speed to race headquarters by radio. The information is tabulated below:

Name Position
(True bearing) Course
(True Bearing) Current Speed
(Knots)
Astral Trent’s Light at 223°
Pamela’s Light at 120° 320° 12
Bumblebee Paula’s Light at 340°
Trent’s Light at 210° 320° 8
Calamity II Pamela’s Light at 020°
Reid Light at 260° 325° 15
Delight Reid Light at 205°
Pamela’s Light at 075° 330° 16
Empire II Paula’s Light at 020°
Pamela’s Light at 110° 000° 9
Fantasy Mark’s Light at 260°
Critchley Peak at 350° 338° 18

From this data, estimate the finishing time, and hence the placings, for the six boats.
Comment on the reliability of your answer.

Note : All construction lines must remain visible, including north lines.
: A meticulous approach is required, as errors of measurement will affect the
grades allocated to your solutions.

KP1 A B C D E MPS2 A B MPS3 A B C

CJ3 A B C CJ5 A

Q6 As the boats are finishing the race, a storm that has been threatening to disrupt the day’s activities finally hits the region.

As the severity of the storm increases, the race control station receives two distress calls simultaneously. The captain of the Gregorian makes the following call:

“We have lost our sail and motor and most of our equipment in the storm. We
are in line with Gregory’s Light and Paula’s Light, and believe that we are on
a 240 bearing to Trent’s Light. We are drifting north at about 2½ knots. We
need help.”

The captain of the Hyperion calls in the following information:

“We have lost our rudder and motor. We cannot get our sails down and we
are stuck on a heading of 245T. We took a sighting of Trent’s Light at 274
and Reid Light at 233, 32 minutes ago. We now see that the angle on the bow
of Reid Light has about doubled. We need help.”

You have two rescue crews available, both based at Ryan Point. Both rescue vessels
have a top speed of 16 knots. The first rescue crew (Rescue #1) is able to leave immediately and the second rescue crew (Rescue #2) are able to leave in two minutes.

Determine whether both rescue vessels are required and devise a justified rescue plan to
deal with both distress calls.

KP1 A B C D E KP2 A B C D E MPS3 A B C

MPS4 A B CJ2 A B C D CJ5 A

2 MATHS A
ITEM 4

Question 3: Business

PLEASE READ INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY ! THIS IS FOR A PORTION OF A GROUP PROJECT. PREVIOUS ASSIGNMENT AND TOPIC IS ATTACHED.

Instruction
Present the company chosen and reasoning for your selection of that company using non narrated power point slides.] Corporation chosen addressing legal, ethical or political topic

Legal Issues: McDonalds Unethical Marketing
McDonald’s corporation deals with the selling of fast food in different regions of the world. The corporation runs more than 30, 000 restaurants in the six continents (Green 2015). The company operates in approximately a hundred countries in the world. Therefore, it has a lot of stakeholders, starting from employees, shareholders, partners, and customers. The company needs to maintain professionalism and ethical conducts with its significant stakeholders. This paper explores the legal issue which the McDonald’s Corporation faced regarding the advertisement of their food to children under 13 years in Quebec. The paper validates the statement that the McDonalds were guilty of breaking the Quebec law on the ad.
The case has it that a Canadian dad of three sued the McDonald for wrongfully advertising Happy Meals to kids, asserting that the organization violated laws in Quebec that oppose the advertisement of items to children under thirteen years of age (Olšanová, 2013). Court statement reads that Antonio Bramante has three youthful youngsters and goes to a McDonald’s café somewhere around like clockwork at their support. He is looking for payment from the chain for items made in recent years and needs to prevent the organization from advertising toys and glad dinners to kids coming up. Antonio’s claim expresses that the toys that accompany Happy Meals are promoted with the dispatch of kids’ motion pictures and are regularly part of an arrangement, inciting his family to come back to the café to finish the set. The court archives, interpreted from their unique French, likewise express that toys are shown in stands at the tyke’s eye level, which Bramante’s lawyer Joey Zukran cases infringe upon laws that are a piece of Quebec’s Consumer Protection Act (Olšanová, 2013).
A representative for McDonald’s Canada told CNBC by email that the organization had gotten the decision and will look at it cautiously (Olšanová, 2013). He asserted that the corporation knows about its commitments under Quebec’s laws regarding advertisement and emphasize that it does accept this class activity has to merit. Also, the representative held that the corporation appreciates the long partnership with the Quebecers and their families, who have been making the most of McDonald’s for over 45 years,” the representative included. Advertising to less than thirteen years of age has been prohibited in Quebec since the 1970s with three special cases: publicizing in kids’ magazines, publicizing kids’ stimulation occasions and promoting using store windows, shows, holders, bundling or marks (Olšanová, 2013). Zuckerman, a lawyer at LPC Avocet, told CNBC by telephone that McDonald’s toy showcases are not secured by this particular case, with the judgment expressing that the organization works cafés as opposed to stores. Regardless of whether they are viewed as stores, Zuckerman stated that must not “straightforwardly prompt a tyke to purchase products or administrations,” as indicated by the buyer security act.
Zuckerman claims that his firm has had an “immense” reaction from different buyers, as any individual who purchases a Happy Meal in Quebec since November 2013 can demand to be a piece of the activity (Olšanová, 2013). He would not give a number but instead asserts that the site smashed because of individuals’ advantage. He indicated the long-running “Mc-Label” instance of the 1990s in which McDonald’s sued activists who were a piece of the London Greenpeace society. The activists presented claims that McDonald exposed children to advertisement contrary to the demands of Quebec. The judge dismissed a lot of sued mistakes but held that the act of marketing to their products through manipulative ad was wrong.
Suffice it to mention that, since the McDonald Corporation embraces the utilitarian theory, it is wrong. It is because the adverts seduce young people, and it does not employ transparency, especially to its customers. Utilitarianism holds that an action is right if it directs pleasure to a maximum number of people; instead, they sell fast food, which brings about ill- health to the observers.

References
Green, S. (2015). McDonald’s. Bellwether Media.
Olšanová, K. (2013). FOOD MARKETING TO CHILDREN-REVIEW OF THE ISSUE FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION. Central European Business Review, 2(3).

Question 4: Psychology

Instruction
Different due dates. LOOK AT ASSIGNMENT FOR DUE DATES
Problem Solving Template

Now that you have critically analyzed the problem/issue the next step is generating a solution. Please review the following steps in creating the problem resolution for your identified problem/issue

Step 1
Identify the goal in developing a resolution.

Using the evacuation plan example, the goal would be to prevent the Hurricane Katrina disaster from occurring again by creating an effective, well developed evacuation plan.

Step 2
List as many possible solutions as you can generate. They don’t all have to be effective, practical or realistic. You can consider what other states have done in similar situations.

A short list of possible solutions for the evacuation plan for New Orleans:
Have emergency management officials trained on a variety of evacuation plans from around the country prior to revising the plan for New Orleans

Develop evacuation plan drills for the city to practice the plan to ensure that it works properly.

Develop ways to educate/inform the entire city about the newly revised evacuation plan including how it works, maps on where people would go and how they would get there.

Step 3
For each possible solution discuss the advantages and disadvantages. Is it a realistic solution? Is it manageable? What are the costs and benefits of the solution? What are the challenges and barriers to the solution?

Using the example of evacuation drills for the city
This is probably not a realistic plan considering the size of the city. It would be financially costly to do evacuation drills as the emergency prepared staff would have to be paid, the National Guard troops would have to be alerted. It’s also probably unmanageable as it would require that the residents leave their jobs, and it would cause multiple traffic jams.

Step 4
Choose the resolution that seems best suited to work in alleviating the problem/issue to include in the capstone document.

Assignment One Due July 24, 2019
Only a few paragraphs!!!
Post by Day 3 your thoughts on the importance of training trauma-response helping professionals prior to their engagement in trauma work. Then describe the trauma-response helping professional you selected in the media carousel. As a counselor, explain how you could help this individual prevent vicarious trauma prior to his or her exposure to trauma and why.

Assignment Two Due July 27, 2019
Debriefing is the opportunity to process thoughts and feelings related to trauma work and traumatic events. There are a number of debriefing models and selecting the type of model is dependant upon the type of trauma work being implemented. For example, many health care organizations adopt the critical incident stress debriefing model (originated from the military) because it has been the most effective method for large organizations (Morrissette, 2004). Think of what type of debriefing model might be effective in your organization or practice.
For this Application Assignment, you select two types of debriefing models and examine the effective elements of the models which aid to mitigate vicarious trauma.

The assignment: (2–3 pages)
⦁ Describe two types of debriefing models.
⦁ Compare the similarities and differences of each model. Be specific.
⦁ Explain how each debriefing model reviews the traumatic event, provides for emotional ventilation, and meets the intended outcome of the debriefing session.
⦁ Select a training element you would add to a debriefing session to maximize the potential to prevent vicarious trauma. Justify your selection by using the Learning Resources and current literature. Be specific.
⦁
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Question 5: Psychology

Will upload the 8 resolutions soon

⦁ Review the “Problem Solving Template” (located in the Resources area on the left navigation bar), paying particular attention to the section on analyzing the solution.
⦁ Review the list of potential resolutions generated in Week 8 and identify the resolution you deem most likely to address the identified problem.
⦁ Consider the following questions for the resolution you have selected:
⦁ Is the resolution realistic?
⦁ What are the consequences of the resolution, and who would be impacted?
⦁ What would be the challenges and barriers to implementing the resolution?

The assignment:

Submit a 1- to 2-page description of the selected resolution with its advantages and disadvantages. Also explain challenges and barriers to its implementation.

Problem Solving Template

Now that you have critically analyzed the problem/issue the next step is generating a solution. Please review the following steps in creating the problem resolution for your identified problem/issue

Step 1
Identify the goal in developing a resolution.

Using the evacuation plan example, the goal would be to prevent the Hurricane Katrina disaster from occurring again by creating an effective, well developed evacuation plan.

Step 2
List as many possible solutions as you can generate. They don’t all have to be effective, practical or realistic. You can consider what other states have done in similar situations.

Develop evacuation plan drills for the city to practice the plan to ensure that it works properly.

Develop ways to educate/inform the entire city about the newly revised evacuation plan including how it works, maps on where people would go and how they would get there.

Step 4
Choose the resolution that seems best suited to work in alleviating the problem/issue to include in the capstone document.

Question 6: Health Care

Assignment #3: Major Research Paper

Question 7: Science

Instruction
It requires for you to create a PowerPoint presentation reviewing a book that has been selected. The book is based upon environmental studies and is at least 250 pages long. The presentation has to be at least 18 slides long and meet certain criteria. There is no narration required. I will provide the complete rubric after assigning it. I will also provide the book information as well at that time.

Question 8: Business

Finance assignment in the MBA Program.

M004 (E04)
MANAGERIAL FINANCE (60%)
COURSEWORK 2 (Individual Work)

Individual End-of-module Report

In the role of a management consultant, prepare a succinct and detailed business report for the Board of Directors of your chosen company. Extend your research from coursework 1 on financial analysis of the performance of your company to include financial and non-financial performance indicators and organizations KPIs and design a balanced scorecard and linked strategy map.

You are required to use the same company as in coursework 1 but permitted to choose a different company only in exceptional circumstances (for example if the company is no longer trading). Your seminar tutor will approve your choice of organization sub-unit for CW2.

The vision, strategy or goal that you identify can be published by the organization (e.g. in their Annual Report) or identified by yourself as appropriate for the organization.
Task:
⦁ Identify the vision and strategy of either:
⦁ The entire organization or
⦁ One unit of the organization or
⦁ One major long term financial and strategic investment that the company is involved with. (10 marks)

⦁ Critically discuss and evaluate balanced scorecards for performance management and monitoring. (20 marks)

⦁ Using published information and material from coursework 1, prepare a Balance Scorecard suitable for use by the directors and managers of the chosen organization to align business activities to identified vision and strategy, and to monitor performance against strategic goals. (20 marks)

⦁ Build a strategic map to describe and explain how each aspect of the balanced scorecard can assist your company in achieving its goals and targets.
(10 marks)
⦁ Summarize your recommendations of the balance scorecard and strategic map to the board. (20 marks)

⦁ Provide a meaningful executive summary of approximately 200 words at the beginning of your report. (10 marks)
⦁ Format your report professionally and acknowledge all sources according to CULC Harvard standard. (10 marks)

This assignment tests achievement of all our module learning outcomes:

⦁ Select and apply appropriate accounting techniques to critically analyze financial data in a variety of business decision making scenarios
⦁ Make informed financial judgments based on the outcome of such accounting analyses
⦁ Critically appraise the techniques used and the information to which they have been applied
⦁ Demonstrate an critical understanding to the internal, external and legal environments in which the judgments are being made

Report Format:

⦁ The maximum word count for the main text excluding tables is 2,500 words.
⦁ Exceeding the word count by more than 10% can result in a reduction of marks.
⦁ Only the main text excluding any tables and diagrams counts, also excluding the contents page, executive summary, list of references and appendix.
2. The assignment must have a front cover stating:
⦁ Module number and name and seminar group number
⦁ Title of the assignment
⦁ Student name and ID
⦁ Submission date
⦁ Word count as defined above

3. All pages must be numbered
4. An executive summary of approximately 200 words is required (not included in the overall word count).
5. A short introduction is required (and included in the word count), even if it is not explicit in the assessment criteria.
6. A reasonable number of appendices may be used for relevant supporting information and to demonstrate your calculations and analysis.

Special plagiarism warning:

This warning is in addition to our general policy on academic practice:

1. Do not feel tempted to copy a Balanced Scorecard from the internet. The task is that you develop the Balanced Scorecard yourself.
2. Do not feel tempted to copy a Strategy Map from the internet. The task is that you develop a Strategy Map yourself based on your own Balanced Scorecard.
3. When you take ideas or information from Coursework 1, please make sure you acknowledge it like any other source in-text and in the reference list. Direct quotes must be marked with quotation marks. An appropriate entry in the reference list would look like:

Teekeng, N., Chongmankhong, Y. and Mwangi, H. (2012) Google Financial Analysis. Unpublished Coursework. London: Coventry University London Campus

Quoting your own material from previous coursework without acknowledgement is called “self- plagiarism” and a form of academic misconduct equal to other forms of plagiarism.
The rubric by which your report will be assessed follows on page 4. It is important that prior to you submitting your work, you read this and objectively assess your response against the rubric. This will ensure that you have done enough to attain the marks you wish to achieve.

Final submission date: displayed on Black Board M004 front page.

Use the CW2 submission link for Coursework 2 to upload your assignment

Question 9: General

Business plan report on Starbucks. Partly completed and each section has questions to areas that need to be covered.

BADM690 Strategic Management Project Guidelines
Table of Contents
Required Submissions…………………………………………………………………………………………………2 Tips for Writing the Plan……………………………………………………………………………………………..3 Project Format……………………………………………………………………………………………………………4 Expectations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5 Suggested Section Topics ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 7 Full Outline………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
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Required Submissions:
This project allows you to apply concepts learned in this class and your other graduate business courses. Make sure your report has been specifically prepared ONLY for this class. You must include a statement on your project cover page that the paper has NOT been submitted for credit in a previous class and will not be submitted for credit in any future class, either in whole or in part.
You may work either with a team (max 3 students) or independently on this project. You should identify a “real life” company that you can have enough access to in-depth financial and operational information to fully analyze the company’s strategic management situation. It would be best if you (or a group member) work in the company you want to analyze. This will facilitate the flow of information. This project has the following assignments or requirements:
⦁ (1) A PROJECT PROPOSAL from each person. You should submit a 1-2 page proposal that describes the company you are using for the project and the plan you have for completion. Document how you plan to get relevant company information. Ideally, you will analyze the entire company and then focus on specific projects and initiatives. You should include a proposed timeline for completion. If you are working with a group, explain how you plan to work with group members (who, when, where, etc.). The proposal should be completed individually so that I can confirm that all students have a project that will work for this assignment. You will need to submit the proposal in the “Project Proposal” assignment dropbox available under the Project tab. (4%-individual submission and grade).
⦁ (2) A PROJECT UPDATE from each person. You should submit a 1-2 page paper that describes your progress. Explain what problems you have run into and how you plan to overcome those. Specifically list which sections you have completed and what is still remaining. Include an updated completion timeline from your proposal. If you are working with a group, explain how your group members are collaborating (who, when, where, etc.). You will need to submit the update in the “Project Update” assignment drop box available under the Project tab. (4%-individual submission and grade)
⦁ (3) A FINAL REPORT that includes all of the detailed data, sources of information and an in depth analysis as well as a more exhaustive discussion of all of the points contained in the outline provided below. You will need to submit the final report in the Turnitin link called “Final Report”, which is available under the Project tab. (15%-group/individual grade)
⦁ (4) A POWERPOINT/PREZI describing the Final Report that is a professional presentation. The presentation should summarize the findings and recommendations. The submission must be placed in the drop-box called “Powerpoint” which is available under the Project tab. (4%-group/individual grade)
⦁ (5) A COURSE REFLECTION PAPER that describes your experiences and learning in this course. You should describe the strengths and weaknesses in your capstone project. What did you feel that you did really well? What areas could you have improved on? If you worked in a group, specifically discuss the positive and/or negative contributions made by each individual. Also, please explain what new knowledge, skills, and/or abilities you have learned from the project and the case studies. Which case study did you enjoy most/least and why? In addition, please describe how the text material you
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studied this this course relates to: (a) your project, (b) the case studies, and (c) your current/past/future workplace. Use specific examples/concepts from the chapters. Also, include your opinions on different aspects of the course. What was most helpful to you? What was least helpful? How could you have improved your course experience and how could I have improved your semester? Finally, please include a section describing what comes next for you. What will your life look like post-MBA? Will you look for a new job, get a promotion, get married, move, go back for another degree (i.e. DBA, JD, PhD), and/or just enjoy more free time? The reflection paper should be approximately 5 pages and should be submitted in the drop-box called “Course Reflection” which is available under the Project tab. (10%-individual submission and grade).
Your first step is to decide whether you want to work independently or in a group. If you want to work alone, you will need to sign-up in the ‘Solo Sign-up List’. To sign-up, select any available Solo#. You must sign-up in a Solo# so that the assignments will be available for you, and you will be able to access your grades.
If you would like to work in a group, you need to first find or contact other students willing to work with you. To do so, you need to post your information on the discussion board link ‘Looking for Project Partners’. Once you have contacted other students, and agreed to work together, SIGN-UP in any available Group# in the Group Sign-up List. Please, select a Group Number that is available and make sure to sign-up on the correct Group# (The Group# with your chosen team members)! Please, make sure that all members register in the same Group #, so look for your partners before signing up. Also, do not sign-up in a group without permission or agreement that you will work with the group. You must contact the members first.
The maximum number of members in each group should be 3. Keep in mind that the higher the number of members, the higher the expectations from the report.
Your next step will be to decide the company to analyze and begin your project proposal.
Tips for Writing this Plan:

⦁ All of the writing involved in the assignment should include the use of proper citations (APA) for sources quoted or used. This applies to both the powerpoint presentation as well as the accompanying complete report.
⦁ Grammar, spelling, and formatting are important. Just because the document has passed spell check doesn’t mean the word is correctly used in context or spelled correctly in context. Please use a traditional 12 pt. font.
⦁ Your powerpoint presentation is to be done from the vantage point of an executive presentation to senior management including the CEO, COO, CFO, etc.
⦁ Clearly identify the readers of this document. Then write the plan in a style that is easily understood by readers.
⦁ Remember that this plan is a working document that has the clear purpose of initiating focussed action and generating clear and measurable results. Avoid the excessive use of
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descriptive adjectives to ‘pad’ or over-sell the plan. Flowery, highly descriptive language can cloud key issues, blur the plan’s focus and slow/confuse its implementation
⦁ Keep the plan ‘tight’; ensure it remains concise, balanced, clear and logical. Where possible use quantitative rather than qualitative information. Remember the KISSS approach to planning; keep it simple, short and specific. Interlink all Sections, with the Market Analysis (SWOT) providing a clear focus for all subsequent sections.
⦁ Focus on facts and information from credible and reputable sources. Where possible avoid critical dependencies on one source of information. Build redundancy into information sources. Make sure to validate all key information used in the plan.
⦁ Always remember that faulty assumptions and faulty logic are some of the greatest hazards to business performance and business planning. Also remember that a good plan implemented today will always beat an excellent plan implemented sometime in the future. So, get the plan completed and into action as soon as is practicable. Also, plans must be adaptive to changing circumstances. If the plan is not performing be prepared to complete ‘major surgery’ on it.
⦁ If any information is overly repetitive between sections, skip it and note that that information has been covered and where to find it.
⦁ If any section doesn’t apply to your industry/company, skip it and note that it is irrelevant.
Project Format:
The format of the final report must be digitally submitted using a 12 pt. font in word (.DOC) document format. You must use the outline provided. The main document should include a minimum of 25 and a maximum of 40 double-spaced pages (if you go above this number, make sure that the information provided is necessary). Appendices may be located at the end the report, and are not included in your maximum page count. Your references may also appear at the end of the report, before the appendix. Organize the final report under section headings and subheadings as needed. Finally, as in most business writing, the paper should adequately convey and document what you want to say, but otherwise be no longer than necessary.
The final written report will be graded primarily on its content, however, format and presentation is important too. Grading will also consider the report’s organization (sequence of ideas), balance (evidence of comparable degree of analysis in sections of comparable importance), style (English usage, grammar and punctuation), and its implementation schedule.
If you are interested in modifying the plan, please ask. I am flexible and I want you to
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get as much out of your time in my class as possible.

Citations and References
⦁ You MUST use APA style. Please, look on the Internet or purchase the APA guides. In addition, Microsoft Word Software comes with these Citations styles functions embedded in the system. Please, do not use Chicago or Turabian styles.
⦁ It is very important that you use the proper in-text citations and reference style. Footnotes
Footnotes in the text must be numbered and typed at the bottom of the page where the footnote is made or on a separate page following the text (i.e., endnote). A footnote or endnote should be used to clarify the text, define terms, make comments, or to list additional sources. Footnotes provide additional information that would detract from the subject being discussed in the body of the text. Again, Microsoft Word software provides this function, which is easy to use!
Figures and Tables Captions
⦁ Search online for the APA and how to caption figures and tables. Then, look online for how to caption figures and tables using Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/education/AddCaption.aspx
⦁ Remember, if captioning Tables, the caption goes at the TOP of the Tables. However, if captioning figures or graph, the caption goes below the figures or graph and should include the source of the table (unless you have developed).
⦁ All Tables/Charts/Figures should have a descriptive title. Power Point
In addition to the written report each team/individual will prepare a POWERPOINT presentation. Assume this presentation will be displayed for a team of venture capitalists, entrepreneurs, and directors of the business you selected that may be in attendance to assist in the evaluation of your plan. It should be professional, but interesting. It should probably be between 15-25 slides, but that is not a requirement only a recommendation.
Expectations for the Capstone Project:
Your success in the business world will depend, to a large extent, on your ability to communicate. Courses during your first few years at the Business School provided the opportunity to hone your written and oral communication skills. This course will provide you with the opportunity to develop further both of these skills. You will be required to write a formal report, which might possibly be available for external judges at the end of the semester and try to convince them of the strength of your Project. The goal of this paper is to examine a company in depth to identify strategies that may have a positive impact on the firm. Remember that a strategic change is typically initiated in reaction to a triggering event and is rare, consequential, and directive.
Substance: You should substantiate what you are trying to convey with facts and data. In most cases, you will be asking the reader of your business report to commit substantial resources–financial, human, or physical–to a project. The decision-maker will not make
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the decision because you think is a good concept. Rather, you will need to convince the reader by providing hard facts and data with appropriate citations. Your rationale and reasoning should be explained logically and clearly. Effective business reports are not documents put together at the last minute—they take time to develop.
Style: The style of your business reports should be clear, concise, and to the point. The executive reading the report does not want to be entertained. He or she wants the information necessary to make a decision. Avoid flowery language with lots of adjectives and adverbs. I have high expectations. If you want to excel in the business world you should too.
Outline: You should follow the outline provided. However, most word processing software includes an outlining function. Use it. Begin your reports by developing an outline to organize your thoughts and the concepts you are trying to convey. The more comprehensive and detailed your outline, the easier it will be to write the report.
Proofread: Carefully proofread each draft of the report. You will probably need three or four drafts before you are satisfied with the report.
Exhibits/Tables/Appendices: I do not expect to receive exhibits or appendices with your handwriting on them. Instead, you should have typed exhibit numbers (let me know if you want some help). This includes copying exhibits from other sources. Unless you are using a photograph that cannot be reproduced in Word document, I expect you to make models, charts, spreadsheets on your own. This takes time but it is all part of being professional. Also, it is important to use captions for Figures or Graphs and Tables. If using Microsoft Word (or any word processor), you can select (highlight) the figure or table, then right click and select insert caption. This will insert automatically the caption (Figure 1 or Table 1) label and number. By doing this you will be able to use the captions as reference in the report. Finally, for Figures and Graphs the captions should be inserted below the graphs. For Tables, the captions should be inserted above the table. Check these in any of your textbooks, look how tables and graphs are reported.
Due dates: Reports are due on the dates assigned and there is no time in the schedule for the report to be turned in late because grades are due to the registrar just after the project due date.
Grading: Reports will be graded as if I were an executive trying to make a business decision based upon the written report. Grading will be competitive. That is, your reports will be graded relative to those turned in by your classmates. Proper spelling, syntax, grammar, punctuation, bibliography, citations, footnotes, and professional appearance are expected. Your grade may be lowered as much as two full letter grades if these areas are lacking.
Reviewing papers: I am willing to discuss the logical reasoning and proposed content of your reports. Before visiting my office, emailing or calling me, you should have made significant progress and should be well prepared.
Plagiarism: Don’t do it. Students are expected to adhere to the University policies regarding academic honesty as stated in the student handbook. Cheating or plagiarism will not be tolerated. Plagiarism includes taking exhibits or ideas from books or websites without giving credit to appropriate sources in addition to direct copy/paste instances. I am very strict about this and I will not hesitate to report academic dishonesty to the university. The work you submit MUST be your own thoughts and written in your own words. Written
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assignments will be run through TURNITIN.

If your submission is above that limit you may be asked to redo the assignment or depending on the severity of the infraction, you
may even receive an automatic 0 on the assignment (and therefore fail the course). In addition, you may also receive an academic dishonesty warning/report.
Suggested Section Topics:
The following is a simple, but effective planning format that will fit many of the sections in this plan. The format is not rigid and should be adapted to the requirements of individual sections as applicable. The four sub-sections that comprise the suggested format are as follows:
⦁ Current Situation
Clearly and concisely present the current situation with any contributing history, and any trends, cycles, changes or future developments that are relevant
⦁ Key Issues
Clearly define the most urgent and important issues as they relate to the current situation for this Section, and the overall purpose of this plan and the company’s Mission. Key issues are usually those strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, capability gaps and impediments that impact on business performance
⦁ Strategies to Address the Key Issues
Formulate strategies using the SMAAART acronym to address the key issues. SMAAART (Specific, Measurable, Action-orientated, Achievable, Affordable, Relevant and Time-bound)
⦁ Key Performance Measures and Targets
Establish key performance measures/indicators, performance targets and time lines in conjunction with the strategies to assess and improve performance
For your capstone project there is no reason
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for the TURNITIN match to be any higher than 20%.
Final Report Outline:
Here is a detailed outline of what you should include in your report. You should use the headings and subheadings, but your paper should be in paragraph form. If any of the headings/subheadings do not apply to your project, just type does not apply or disregard the section.
Thus, at a minimum you must develop a strategic plan for the study entity that adequately covers:
⦁ i) Title Page:
⦁ Strategic Business Plan for “Company Name”
⦁ Period of the Study (i.e. January 2018 to December 2019)
⦁ Team Members
⦁ Originality Statement
⦁ ii) Summary:
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The Summary is the last section written, but is placed in the front of the paper. It should be restricted to two to three pages in length. In essence the summary is a very effective distillation of the overall strategic plan into a ‘hard hitting’ summary of key performance initiatives and performance targets. Typically it would include a brief description of the company and then the following information about the proposed strategic plan:
⦁ Purpose:
⦁ The Business Opportunity
⦁ The Product
⦁ Main Findings:
⦁ The Market Strategy
⦁ The Management Team
⦁ Profit and Cash Projections
⦁ Investment Needs
⦁ Returns to Investors
⦁ Conclusions and Recommendations
⦁ iii) Table of Contents
⦁ iv) Body of the report:
1) Strategic Focus
⦁ The Aim of this Plan: What do we wish to achieve with this plan (start, grow,
consolidate, downsize, or exit)?
⦁ Our Mission: A Mission Statement clearly defines the primary purpose or
reasons for our existence. It is heavily focused on customer value. It is also vital to achieving organizational alignment. A mission statement typically provides clear and concise answers to the following questions:
Remember, I am flexible and I want this project to be as relevant to
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your situation as possible.
⦁ What products and services do we deliver?
⦁ Where and when do we deliver our products and services?
⦁ Which customer groups are our primary groups?
⦁ Where are our primary customers
⦁ What tangible value do our products and services deliver to customers?
⦁ What is our competitive advantage?
⦁ What additional community and environmental benefits do we generate?
⦁ Answers to the above questions provide a start-point for preparing a statement that clearly positions the company in the minds of key stakeholders and customers
⦁ Core Organizational Competencies: Which core organizational skills and competencies are vital to achieving our mission
⦁ Organizational Values: What core organisational values must be imbedded in our organisation to establish a culture capable of achieving our Mission?
⦁ Highest Priority Goals: List up to six of your highest priority goals in order of priority. These goals are formulated at Section 17. Section 17 shows how to use the SMAAART acronym to write clear, concise action-oriented goal statements. SMAAART Goals – are Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Achievable, Affordable, Time-bound. An example of a SMAAART Goal: By 30 June 2002 to construct and commission a world-standard production and delivery facility capable of producing two 20 metre road bridges per month for direct installation in to Australia’s public road system.
In essence strategic goals progressively take the company to its next level of performance and keep it there.
⦁ Goal One
⦁ Goal Two
⦁ Goal Three
⦁ Goal Four
⦁ Goal Five
⦁ Goal Six
⦁ Performance Objectives: The performance objectives below, in combination, form a performance scorecard for easily tracking the performance improvements generated by this plan. Section 17 provides the inputs for this scorecard. The planning team determines the composition of the performance scorecard.
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Performance Area Performance Measures Target Time Frame
Financial Performance
Customer and Market Performance
Internal Efficiency and Effectiveness
Long Term Development and Innovation
2) The Business:
Provide a concise overview of the business. Areas for consideration when preparing this section to include:
⦁ Owners/Directors/Shareholders/Shareholdings
⦁ A brief history of the business
⦁ Corporate and business cultures
⦁ Nature of the business and it main activities
⦁ Location
⦁ Current stage in its life cycle
⦁ Past performance and key achievements
⦁ Key business advisors – Solicitor, Banker, Accountant, and Consultants
⦁ Relationships with key stakeholders
⦁ Competitive strengths and weaknesses
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3) Market Analysis
Conduct a detailed analysis across each of the following areas to identify and quantify key market opportunities/gaps, barriers to market entry, threats, compliance requirements, risks, performance multipliers, critical success factors, etc. that must be considered when developing high priority product development, marketing and business strategies. All budgetary and financial constraints must be factored in to this planning.
⦁ Global/National Trends, Developments, Cycles and Changes of Relevance
⦁ Macro-environment (i.e. political, economic, legal, social/cultural,
demographics, technology)
⦁ Industry
⦁ Markets, Customers and Suppliers
⦁ Competitors and their Products
Questions typically asked during the analysis would include:
⦁ What are the industry’s economics, critical success factors, key risks,
competitiveness, compliance and standards requirements, emerging trends
and key technologies?
⦁ Who are the key customers and major competitors in each target markets?
⦁ What are the sizes of the target markets? Are they growing? If yes, at what
rate?
⦁ What market share does each major competitor hold in your primary markets
⦁ What are the strengths and weaknesses of major competitors and their
products?
⦁ What are the competitive price points for products in each market?
⦁ What competitive advantages must your products have to successfully enter
and compete in target markets?
⦁ How will you differentiate your products and add more-customer-value than
competitors?
Key questions about your primary customers:
⦁ Specifically what need or problem does your product target?
⦁ Who will make the decision to purchase your products?
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⦁ What are their decision criteria?
⦁ Where are the products bought?
⦁ How are the products bought?
⦁ When are the products bought?
⦁ Why are the products bought?
⦁ How well do you know your primary customers and key competitors?
⦁ How strong are your relationships with key customers and key stakeholders?
How do you involve them in product development? What factors will be
critical to building strong and enduring brands with them?
⦁ What levels of demand for your products are realistic across your primary
markets?
⦁ In order of priority what are your primary markets? Why?
⦁ How will your primary competitors react when you enter their markets, now
and over the next two years?
⦁ What are you going to do about their responses?
⦁ What are the major barriers to market entry?
⦁ What are the critical success factors for each market?
⦁ What key product distribution, product support and customer service issues
must be considered?

⦁ Which companies and products are likely to become competitors in the
future?
⦁ What new or emerging technologies and substitute products are likely to
become threats in the future?
4) Products
Based on the findings of Section Three identify your product’s key strengths and weaknesses as they relate to key market opportunities and threats. Then develop strategies to address each issue (eg, build on strengths and correct weaknesses) for each product in your product portfolio. When preparing this section consider the following framework for clustering key issues and related strategies. All budgetary and financial constraints must be factored in to this planning.
⦁ Describe your current and near-future products?
⦁ What gives your products a clear competitive advantage?
⦁ What are the benefits and value provided to customer as opposed to
‘features’?
⦁ What are the environmental and social impacts and implications?
⦁ What regulations, standards and codes must be complied with?
⦁ At what stage is each product in its life-cycle? For example:
⦁ Research completed
⦁ Prototype completed
⦁ In-house testing
⦁ Customer testing
⦁ Market ready
⦁ First up-grade completed
Also consider conducting the product analysis and planning for this section
across the following stages:
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⦁ Current Situation
⦁ Key Product and Market Issues
⦁ Key Strategies
⦁ Performance Measures and Targets
⦁
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⦁
⦁
5) Marketing
Based on discussions at previous sections develop a concise set of highly focussed marketing strategies for your most attractive and highest priority markets. These strategies will guide your market entry, market development, and brand building activities. Establish budgets for these activities. Set realistic and measurable performance targets and time lines for each market entry/development strategy. These targets are critical to designing and building business and production capacities aligned with expected market demands on entry, and in to the future.
In essence marketing strategies in combination create the well differentiated, high value and compelling proposition to customers that persuades them to purchase from you rather then a competitor. These strategies should build on the competitive strengths of the company while exploiting the weaknesses of key competitors. A highly competitive, high-value proposition to customers is typically created around the following drivers of competitive advantage:
⦁ Product distribution eg, simple, speedy and easy customer-access to the product
⦁ Product benefits highly valued by the customer
⦁ Product promotion
⦁ Customer communication, interaction and feedback
⦁ Product support for the life of the product
⦁ Customer service
⦁ Product pricing and purchasing
⦁ Product presentation and packaging
⦁ Product compliance with all relevant legislation
6) Research and Development
Provide a background to current activities. Then identify key issues (strength, weakness, gaps, threats and opportunities) and develop related strategies for addressing each key issues. Link the R&D effort to your market research, product development and marketing activities discussed in previous sections. All budgetary and financial constraints must be factored in to this planning.
Areas to be analysed to include:
⦁ Sources of R&D
⦁ Current and planned
⦁ Strategic alliances for R&D
⦁ Intellectual Property Protection
⦁ Patents held plus the corporate entity that holds the patents
⦁ Shared intellectual property and its protection
⦁ Intellectual property being used, but not owned
⦁ Intellectual property protection currently being sort for new developments
12

⦁ Current and planned R&D activities
⦁ Processes employed for the development and commercialisation of new
products and technologies
7) Production and Delivery
Provide a background to current activities. Then identify key issues – strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in production capacities and capabilities – as they relate to meeting the marketing requirements and targets, and R&D requirements developed in earlier sections. Then develop linked strategies with clear targets, time lines and budgets to develop and progressively expand production capabilities and capacities. All budgetary and financial constraints are factored in to this planning.
Key issues are typically identified following an evaluation of key production and delivery performance-drivers. Typical areas to be addressed during this evaluation include:
⦁ Plant design, location, size and site requirements
⦁ Access to key manufacturing technologies
⦁ Production capacity and capability requirements
⦁ Criteria for selecting contractors and suppliers
⦁ In-house versus out-sourcing of manufacturing requirements
⦁ The manufacturing and production standards, codes, regulations and
OH&S requirements that must be complied with
⦁ Equipment needs
⦁ Inventory management
⦁ Manufacturing processes – configurations and technologies
⦁ Product and production costings
⦁ Purchasing systems
⦁ Quality control systems
⦁ Manufacturing resources planning
⦁ Material requirements planning
⦁ Warehousing
⦁ Scheduling and dispatch
⦁ Material supplies and inventory
⦁ Critical/key inputs to all manufacturing and production processes
⦁ Risk management
⦁ Key staffing and skills requirements
⦁ Clear linkages to, and feedback loops with the company’s marketing,
product development, and R&D functions
⦁ Work systems and teams for staff
⦁ Designing, testing and improving all production and delivery systems
to meet market demands and expected growth
⦁ Key performance measures and targets for controlling and improving
all production and delivery systems to increase production efficiencies
and effectiveness.
⦁ Benchmarking and best-practice
13

8) Supply Chains
Provide a background to current activities and list all key suppliers. Then identify key issues – strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in supply chain capacities and capabilities – as they relate to meeting the production and delivery requirements and targets developed at Section Seven. Then develop linked strategies with clear targets, time lines and budgets to develop and progressively improve supply chain capabilities and capacities. All budgetary and financial constraints must be factored in to this planning. Supply chains assessments to include out-sourcing. For example any R&D that is out-sourced should be included in this assessment. Conduct the analysis and planning for this section across the following stages:
⦁ Current Situation
⦁ Key Supply Chain Issues
⦁ Key Strategies
⦁ Performance Measures and Targets
9) Business Systems and Processes
Based on the plans/strategies developed and performance targets established in sections One to Eight identify key issues – strengths, weaknesses and gaps – within the business systems and processes that drive business performance. Then develop strategies to address these issues.
Performance reviews to improve internal business systems and processes typically include an assessment of the following performance areas:
⦁ Quality Management (eg, ISO 9001 – Quality Standard, AS 4269 – Complaints
Handling Standard)
⦁ Risk Management (eg, AS/NZS, Risk Management Standard)
⦁ Regulatory Compliance (Search for any Compliance Program Standard)
⦁ Information Management and Security (eg, Security Standard AS/NZS
ISO/IEC 17799:2000)
⦁ Financial management
⦁ Managing the environmental and social impacts of business operations
⦁ Performance improvement across the business, to include performance
indicators and targets
⦁ Future planning and ongoing innovation (eg, new product development &
process innovation)
⦁ Employee performance and morale
⦁ Stakeholder relationships
⦁ Board and management performance
10) Stakeholder Relationships and Alliances
Describe the current situation and list those key stakeholders that currently contribute to business performance. Identify key issues – strengths, weaknesses and gaps – that relate to improving stakeholder relationships and alliances. Then develop strategies to address each key issue.
Stakeholder groups typically include shareholders/blockholders, customers,
14
suppliers of good and services, employees, regulators, the environment, community, and government departments. Questions asked during the stakeholder analysis include:
⦁ Are all of our key stakeholders clearly identified?
⦁ Who will become key stakeholders in the near future?
⦁ Are their expectations and requirements clearly understood?
⦁ Are they regularly consulted?
⦁ Are they kept updated, and involved in those business decisions that will
affect them?

11) Organization and Management
Section Seven provides clear production and delivery projections and targets for the company. Current organisational structures and human resource capabilities will most likely require improvement to meet these increasing business demands.
Conduct an analysis of the current situation and growth projections for the company to identify the key organisational and human resource issues that must be addressed if these growth projections are to be realised. Then develop strategies with key performance measures and targets to address these key issues.
Areas to be addressed include:
⦁ Organizational Chart – show current structures and future structures
⦁ The Management team with brief resumes – show the situation now and in to
the future
⦁ Staffing requirements – now and in to the future
⦁ Job descriptions and work design for management and staff – now and in to
the future
⦁ Human performance standards, measurement and feedback – now and into
the future
⦁ Management and staff training and development – now and in to the future
⦁ Recruitment and induction – now and in to the future
⦁ Encouraging innovation across the company
⦁ Providing leadership and building morale
⦁ Training needs analysis – now and in to the future
⦁ Occupational health and safety
⦁ Industrial relations
⦁ Wages and on-costs
⦁ Other relevant human resource issues
12) Environmental and Social Impacts
Conduct the analysis and planning for this section across the following stages:
⦁ Current Situation
⦁ Key Environmental and Social Issues
⦁ Key Strategies
⦁ Performance Measures and Targets
15

13) Risk Factors and Regulatory Compliance
⦁ Risk Management
Establish key risks to the overall business and its performance by identifying high priority risks within each performance area represented by the sections of this plan. Quantify these risks by assessing the gravity of their impacts on the business should they be realised, and determining the probability that they will be realised.
Following quantification of the risks establish an order of priority for their control. Then develop risk management strategies – with performance measures, targets and time lines – that address the highest priority risks.
⦁ Regulatory Compliance
Conduct an audit of regulatory compliance requirements across each area of the business as represented by the sections of this plan. Develop strategies to address regulatory gaps and weaknesses. Search for any Compliance Programs Standard that could provide a good framework for developing an effective compliance management system.
A regulatory compliance audit would typically embrace:
⦁ Corporate governance
⦁ Taxation
⦁ Superannuation
⦁ Employing staff
⦁ Health and safety
⦁ Trade Practices
⦁ Intellectual Property Rights
⦁ Environmental Issues
⦁ The Privacy Act
14) Corporate Governance
Areas to be addressed by this section typically would include:
⦁ Corporate Structures
⦁ Company Constitution
⦁ Board of Directors – Size and Composition
⦁ Duties and Responsibilities of the Board
⦁ Board Performance
⦁ Advisors to the Board
⦁ Shareholder Agreements
⦁ Major Shareholders and Their Representatives
15) Financials
Based on the strategies and plans formulated, costings calculated, and sales projected develop a set of financials for the duration of the plan. These financials should include cash flows, profit and loss, balance sheets, investment requirements, and key financial performance indicators (ratios), and related performance targets.
16) Application of Investment Funds
16
This section should be linked to all prior planning and at minimum address the following:
⦁ What will be the total investment requirement across the duration of this plan
– when and how much?
⦁ Which investors will be involved; how much will they provide and when will
they provide it?
⦁ How will the funds be used at each round of investment?
⦁ What will the capital structure and ownership be after each round of
investment?
17) Strategic Action Plan
Primary Goals, Objectives and Strategies
The Aim of this section is to integrate all strategies developed across previous sections into a cohesive and balanced plan of highly focussed action that will achieve the overarching purpose of this Strategic Plan.
Firstly…..High-priority, clear, action-orientated, time-bound and practicably achievable goals are formulated around clusters of ‘like’ strategies developed across the previous sections. Goals mark a clear and well-marked pathway for achieving the aim of this plan. To ensure the plan has a sharp focus the number of key goals should be restricted to six or less whenever possible. A clear time frame and performance target should be integrated in to each goal statement. An example of a goal statement: By 30 June 2018 to construct and commission a world-standard production and delivery facility capable of producing two 20 metre road bridges per month for direct installation in to Australia’s public road system.
After each goal has been clearly formulated develop a set of supporting objectives and strategies. Objectives define the best pathway for achieving each goal. Strategies define the pathway for achieving each objective. Objectives and strategies are also written using the SMAAART acronym – Specific, Measurable, Action-orientated, Affordable, Achievable, and Time-bound. The final step in developing an interacting hierarchy/network of focussed action is the Task plan. This plan allocates people and resources to completing those tasks required for achieving each strategy. Vital budget and resource considerations are integrated in to the overall planning process to ensure all planned actions are affordable.
The interacting hierarchy/network of action for achieving the aim of the plan is illustrated below. The hierarchy/network of focussed action is not a rigid structure and, where possible, should be adapted to the each situation to ensure it provides fast, effective and relatively simple action pathways for delivering results of significance.
⦁ Key Strategic Goal
⦁ Objectives to achieve the strategic goal
⦁ Strategies to achieve each objective
⦁ Task Plans to achieve each strategy
⦁ Plan Implementation: Typically management in consultation with staff and
17
key stakeholders implements each Goal and its supporting objectives, strategies and action/task plans. Balanced teams can be effectively employed to implement strategies and supporting action/task plans.
18) Plan Improvement
⦁ Performance Measurement: The plan’s performance should be assessed
against its effectiveness in achieving its high priority goals and performance targets.
⦁ Plan Review and Up Date: To ensure the plan continues to provide a sharp focus and remain responsive to change it should be formally reviewed and updated every six months, at the achievement of a Strategic Goal and at any other time deemed necessary. Implementation of this plan is to be a fixed agenda item at meetings of the Board of Directors.
v) References vi) Appendices
18

Question 10: Mathematics

Q. At Ahmed’s Birth day party,5/7 part of the total cake was distributed. find how much cake is left?

Question 11: Psychology

we are as a imperfect! Do you think That There is a Perfect ? and Why?

Question 12: Finance

Review the article below, which is also in the required reading section of this unit.
Miralles-Quirós, M. d. M., & Miralles-Quirós, J. (2017). Improving diversification opportunities for socially responsible investors. Journal of Business Ethics, 140(2), 339-351. Retrieved from https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=120928035&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Your article review should include an accurate identification of the article’s premise, significant points in support of the premise, and the significance of these to the course and/or field. Be sure that you present an insightful and thorough analysis with strong arguments and evidence of interpretation.
Your case study analysis should address the components listed below.
⦁ Discuss who socially responsible investors are and how they use U.S. Treasury bills (T-bills), mutual funds, and hedge funds to diversify their portfolios.
⦁ Analyze the results of the T-bills listed and the net asset value (NAV) results for the mutual funds and hedge funds.
⦁ Examine the volatility linkage and the pricing of the three investment options.
⦁ Identify further research needed based on the article.
Your article review should be a minimum of three pages in length, not counting the title and reference pages. You must use a minimum of three sources, which should be properly cited. All references should be formatted in APA style.

Question 13: Biology

If a patient presents to you post ischemic stroke on warfarin and their INR is therapeutic. Do you reverse it?

Question 14: Chemistry

You are asked to prepare a 1.000 L solution of 4.5 M C6H12O6 (glucose; molar mass = 180.16 g/mol) in a lab by dissolving 811.0 g of glucose in water. Consider the following two scenarios in which you commit a user error while preparing this solution.
Prepared in a volumetric flask Prepared in a beaker
Assumed volume 1.000 L 1.000 L
Volumetric error Added water 2.0 cm above the line, which corresponds to 6.3 mL (0.0063 L) additional solution volume 811.0 g takes up 526 mL of space rather than 500 mL of space
Preparation details You add the glucose to a volumetric flask and then add water until it dissolves. The water bottle you are using has a worn tip, and you inadvertently add too much water such that the meniscus is above the line. The diameter of the neck of the volumetric flask is 2.29 cm . You prepare the solution by adding glucose to a large beaker and approximated the volume of the glucose to be 500 mL . Therefore, you add 500. mL of water to the 526 mL in the beaker using a graduated cylinder.
You decide to evaluate and compare the errors you made while preparing the solutions using the different methods. Calculate the actual concentrations of the intended 4.5 M glucose solutions prepared by each method based on their actual final volumes.

Question 15: Engineering

Chemical engineering thermodynamics

Propane gas at 100 °C is compressed isothermally from an initial pressure of 1 bar to a final pressure of 10 bar. Estimate ?H a

Question 16: Law

find and review a scholarly article on the topic of Management.
Compose a substantive post where you discuss two or more facts/ideas/concepts/etc. covered in the article then explain how those facts/ideas/concepts/etc. relate to your organization or an organization with which you are familiar.

Question 17: Computer Science

Java Programming
ITEC1620 Assignment#3
⦁ Due: July 31, 11 PM; Late submissions will be rejected.
⦁ Submission upload must be in plain text format; all others will be rejected.
⦁ Name your file with your full name, e.g., peggy_carter.txt.
⦁ Programs/codes must compile – resolve all syntax errors.
⦁ Include appropriate comments describing significant parts of the program.
1.
The program features include:
a) b) c) d) e) f)
AdjustMarks
Marker
Write a Java program called
that gets a set of test scores and uses the
class that calculate
the mean of an array of test scores with the lowest score dropped. See UML diagram provided below.
asking the user for the number of test scores;
creating the scores array to hold the test scores;
creating a Marker object passing the scores array as a parameter;
displaying the lowest score;
adjusting the mean by annulling (dropping) the lowest score and
displaying the adjusted mean; if there is less than 2 scores, the adjusted mean is 0.0 and the user is
informed of the ERROR.
Hint: the getLowestScore method needs to hold the lowest score; get the first test score in the array and step through the rest of the array; when a value less than lowest is found, assign it to lowest; then return the lowest test score.
Sample Output:
How many test scores do you have? 4
Enter score #1: 90
Enter score #2: 80
Enter score #3: 70
Enter score #4: 60
Your adjusted mean is 80.0
Your lowest test score was 60.0

Question 18: Law

1. Describe the importance of integrating the work of experts in college writing
2.summarize the importance of learning to conduct and properly credit the work of experts in college writing. How will doing so help you on your academic journey?
3.Define emotional intelligence. What are the benefits of emotional intelligence? Why should
emotional intelligence be taught to children at a very young age. (Your response should be a
minimum of 150 words)
4.Discuss in detail the role of self awareness in becoming emotionally intelligent. What is self
awareness and how do we become self aware? What role does honesty and transparency play
in this process? (Your response should be a minimum of 200 words)
5 .Discuss in detail the role of self management in becoming emotionally intelligent. What is self
management and what does it look like when we self manage our lives? Explain how this might
be the area of emotional intelligence where we most often fail. (Your response should be a
minimum of 200 words)
6. Discuss in detail the role of social awareness in emotional intelligence. What is social
awareness. How can we become more socially aware? How does this step indicate a move
outside of ourselves and begin our interaction with others? (Your response should be a
minimum of 200 words)
7.Discuss in detail the role of social awareness in emotional intelligence. What is social
awareness. How can we become more socially aware? How does this step indicate a move
outside of ourselves and begin our interaction with others? (Your response should be a
minimum of 200 words)

Question 19: Business

https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/case-7-chipotle-mexican-grill-inc-conscious-capitalism-serving-food-i

Question 20: Computer Science

Operating System

Suppose there are two users A and B on the same system and both running different programs on the same system.
Suppose there are two users A and B on the same system and both running different programs on the same system. User A plans to change the password of the system. As soon as he was changing the password on the system, User B also opened the necessary interface for changing the password of the system and begins changing the password at exactly the same time.
⦁ What flaws do you find in such a system?
⦁ How to solve problems? Give solution

Question 21: Engineering

Assignments in Numerical Methods for Mechanics
1) The maximum distance up an inclined plane (of an inclination ) reached by an object of mass m, taking the air resistance proportional to the instantaneous velocity (constant of proportionality K) into account is
Show that as → 0,
a) Find the inclination of the plane of a 5 kg object moved through a maximum distance of 2 m with an initial velocity of 10 m/s. If K = 2 s/kg.
constant of proportional being K is given by
b) If the maximum height attained by a body of mass m when thrown upward with an initial velocity (air resistance is proportional to its instantaneous velocity, the
0
00 =
At what initial velocity will a body of mass 3 kg be thrown so as to attain a maximum height of 5m. Given that K = 2s/kg. What happens as → 0
2) A rocket has mass M, which includes a mass m of a fuel mixture. During the burning process, the combustion products are discharged at a velocity q > 0 relative to the rocket. This burning involves a loss per second of a mass p of the final mixture. Neglecting all external forces except a constant gravitational force, the maximum theoretical height attained rocket is given by
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2
= + ln − + 2 ln − 2
(if the rocket starts radially from the earth’s surface with velocity of zero) Find the mass of the rocket if for = 1.4, p= 1.0, and = 1080 .
3) An object is projected vertically upward from the earth’s surface with an initial velocity 0 of magnitude less than the escape velocity. If the earth’s influence is taken into account, the time for the projectile to reach the maximum height is
2 2 2 − 2 = (arcsin0+0 0
(2 − 2)2 2 2 3
a) Show, by series or otherwise, that if 02 ≪ 2 (i.e initial velocity much smaller than escape velocity), then the time to reach the maximum height is approximately 0/
4) An object falls y distance from the center of the earth (radius ). Show that it hits the
earth’s surface with a speed equal to 2 (1 − )
2 − = ( − ) + arccos
If the object reaches the earth’s surface in a time given by
2 2 2
3
= 6378.11 , = 384.467 ∗ 10
(assuming that air resistance is negligible). Find the time to reach the earth surface if
5) A horizontal simply supported, uniform beam of length L and negligible weight bends under the influence of a concentrated load of P N, distance L/3 from one end. If the equation of the elastic curve is given by 2 3
⎧ (5 −9 ) 0≤ ≤ /3
= ⎨ 81 27 3
⎩81 (5 2 − 9 3 + 2 − 3 3 ≤ ≤
6) From the immemorial, mankind has gazed at the moon, wondering about many things, one of them being whether a day might come when men could be there.
Following the Newton’s law of universal gravitation which shows the possibility of firing a projectile (rocket) out of the earth (or a huge cannon) with an escape velocity of
= 2 − 2 0 2 + 2 2 − 2 0 2
0
+ + + 9( + + )
where , are the acceleration and the radius of the moon. L is the distance between the earth’s surface and the moon’s surface. is the radius of the earth. g is the acceleration
due to gravity on the earth.

If a rocket is fired vertically upward from the earth’s surface with an initial velocity
Find the initial velocity of the rocket if it reaches a maximum distance of 240,000 miles in
= 1737.41 , = 6378.11 , = 384.467 ∗ 103
7. At the last conference of Nigeria Society of Engineers (NSE), a mechanical engineer presented a paper on the “Effects of Noise on Machine Operator”. In the work, he developed a mathematical model using Taylor’s series and carried out all the computations to four decimal places.
i. identity the possible types of numerical error that might have been committed by the engineer during the computations.
(less than that of escape velocity). And it reaches the maximum height at a time
0
50 hrs.
= 2 2 arcsin 0 + 0 2 − 02 (2 − 02)32 2 2
ii. Define the errors and state how they can be minimized.
b The relationship between the applied pressure, P and the radius of the plastic front, rf in the elasto-plastic analysis of thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel is given as
P= 2 +1− 2
√3 2
where σo is the yield stress of the cylinder material, ri and ro are the inner and outer radius of
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the cylinder, respectively. Given that σo=220 N/mm2, ri = 320 mm and ro=450 mm, use Newton- Raphson’s method, find the radius of the plastic front when the applied pressure is 81.29 N/m2.
8. Fig. Q1 shows a wind tunnel with a suspended object. The force measured for various levels of wind velocity are given in the Table below.
Fig. Q1: A wind tunnel with a suspended object.
v(m/s) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 F (N) 25 70 380 550 610 1220 830 1450
⦁ Use the data above, develop an empirical model for the relationship between the force and the wind velocity.
⦁ With the aids of Simpson’s 1/3rd rule and Newton-Gregory forward difference scheme, find power developed by the wind tunnel. Compare your results and establish the relative difference between them.
(i) (ii) (iii)
9. The dynamic mechanical spring-mass system with aid of Newton’s second law of motion is given by
( − )+ ( − )− = ̈ 2213311111
− 2( 2 − 1) + 4( 3 − 2) = 2 2̈ − 3( 3 − 1) − 4( 3 − 2) − 5 3 = 3 3̈
10). Solve equation 2 − 1 1/2
2 − 1 1/2 = 1/2 tan−1 2 −tan−1 1
− ((tan−1( 2 − 1)1/2) − (tan−1( 12 − 1)1/2))
using the Newton-Raphson’s method. Construct a table of M vs for = 1.4 and 1 = 1.0, for 0 ≤ δ ≤ 40 , in increments Δ = 1.0 , let 0 = 1.06 and 1 = 1.08. For subsequent values of , let 0 be the previous solution value and 1 = 1.01 0.
11). The van der Waal equation of state for a vapor is
+ ( − ) = 223
Where P is the pressure (Pa = N/m ), v is the specific volume (m /kg), T is the temperature (K), R is the gas constant (J/kg-K), and a and b are empirical constants. Consider water vapor, for which R = 461.495 J/kg-K, a = 1703.28 Pa-(m3/kg)3, and b = 0.00169099 (m /kg). Equation (F) can be rearranged into the form
3 3 − ( + ) 2 + − = 0
Calculate the specific volume v for P = 10,000 kPa and T = 800K. Use the ideal gas law, Pv = RT, to obtain the initial guess (or guesses). Present the results in the format illustrated in the examples
12. When an incompressible fluid flows steadily through a round pipe, the pressure drop due to the effects of wall friction is given by the empirical formula:
Δ = −0.5 2
Where Δ is the pressure drop, is the density, V is the velocity, L is the pipe length, D is the pipe diameter, and f is the D’Arcy friction coefficient. Several empirical formulas exist for the friction coefficient f as a function of the dimensionless Reynolds number, = / , where is the viscosity. For flow in the turbulent regime between completely smooth pipe surfaces and wholly rough pipe surfaces, Colebrook (1939) developed the following empirical relation for the friction coefficient f:
1 =−2log / + 2.51 1/2 10 3.7 1/2
where is the pipe surface roughness. Develop a procedure to determine f for the specified values of / and Re. Use the approximation proposed by Generaux (1939) to determine the initial approximation(s):
= 0.16 −0.16
Solve for f for a pipe having / = 0.001 for = 10 , for n = 4, 5, 6, and 7.
13. Consider quasi-one-dimensional isentropic flow of a perfect gas through a variable-area
channel. The relationship between the Mach number M and the flow area A, derived by
12 −1 ε= ∗= +1 1+ 2 2
( +1)/2( −1)
Zucrow and Hoffman [1976, Eq. (4.29)], is given by
where ∗ is the choking area (i.e., the area where M = 1) and is the specific heat ratio of the flowing gas. For each value of , two values of M exist, one less than unity (i.e,. subsonic flow) and one greater than unity (i.e., supersonic flow). Calculate both values of
M for = 10.0 and = 1.4 by Newton’s method. For the subsonic root, let 0 = 0.2. For the supersonic root, let 0 = 5.0.
14. Consider isentropic supersonic flow around a sharp expansion corner. The relationship between the Mach number before the corner (i.e., M1) and after the corner (i.e., M2), derived by Zucrow and Hoffman [1976] is given by
−1 1/2 −1 1/2 = 1/2 tan−1 2 −tan−1 12
− ((tan−1( 2 − 1)1/2) − (tan−1( 12 − 1)1/2))
where = ( + 1)/( − 1) and is the specific heat ratio of the gas. Develop a procedure to solve for M2 for specified values of , , 1. For = 1.4, solve for M2 for the following combinations of M1and : (a) 1.0 and 10.0 deg, (b) 1.0 and 20.0 deg, (c) 1.5 and
10.0 deg, and (d) 1.5 and 20.0 deg. Use 2(0) = 2.0 and 2(1) = 1.5.
15. An emf of 0 volts, where 0, are constants, is applied at t = 0 to a series circuit
)
= ( + − 222
consisting of R ohms and C farad where R and C are constant. If Q = 0 at t = 0 and at t > 0
0 + 1
If = 20Ω, C = 0.01 farad, = 5 / , 0 = 10
− /
i) At what time in the circuit the charges reaches 0.075 coulomb ii) At what time in the circuit is the charge maximum.
16. When an ideal gas flows in a variable-area passage in the presence of friction and heat transfer, the Mach number M is governed by the following Ode [see Eq. (9.112) in Zucrow and Hoffman, Vol. 1 (1976)}:
= [1 + (( − 1) 2)/2] − 1 + 1 2 4 + 1 (1 + 2) 1
1− 2 2 2
where x is the distance along the passage (cm), is the ratio of specific heats (dimensionless), A is the cross-sectional flow area (cm2), f is the friction coefficient (dimensionless), D is the diameter of the passageway (cm), and T is the stagnation temperature (K). For a conical flow passage with a circular cross section, = 2/4, where ( ) = 1 + , where D1 is the inlet diameter. Thus,
= = ( + ) = ( + ) = 424 1 221 2
The stagnation temperature T is given by
( )= + ( ) 1
where Q(x) is the heat transfer along the flow passage (J/cm) and C is the specific heat (kJ/kg-K). Thus,
For a linear heat transfer rate, = + , and
= 1 ( + ) =
= 1
The friction coefficient f is an empirical function of the Reynolds number and passage
conditions. Consider a problem where = = 0.0, = 0.25 / , = 1.4, and =
surface roughness. It is generally assumed to be constant for a specific set of flow
1.0 . Calculate M(x) for x = 0.0 to 5.0 cm for (a) Mi = 0.7 and (b) Mi = 1.5 17. The governing equation for a projectile shot vertically upward is
2 = − − | | (0) = 0 ′(0) = 2 0
where m is the mass of the projectile (kg), y(t) is the height (m), g is the acceleration of gravity (9.80665 m/s2),
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C is an aerodynamic drag parameter, and V = dy/dt is the velocity. For m = 10.0kg, C = 0.1 N-s2/m2, and V0 = 500.0 m/s, calculate (a) the maximum height attained by the projectile, (b) the time required to reach the maximum height, and (c) the time required to return to the original elevation.
18. A machine of mass m (kg) rests on a support that exerts both a damping force and a spring force on the machine. The support is subjected to the displacement ( ) = . From
Newton’s second law of motion,
0 2
2 = − − − ( − )
where (y – Y) is the relative displacement between the machine and the support, C is the damping coefficient, and K is the spring constant. Determine the motion of the machine during the first cycle of oscillation of the support for m = 1,000.0 kg, C = 5,000.0 N-s/m, K = 50,000.0 N/m, Y0 = 1.0 cm, = 100.0 / and y(0) = y’(0) = 0.0.
+ +1 = ( ) (0)= (0)=
19. The current i(t) in a series L-R-C circuit is governed by the ODE
00
where i is the current (amps), q is the charge (coulombs), dq/dt = I, L is the inductance (henrys), C is the capacitance (farads), and V is the applied voltage (volts). Let L = 100.0 mH, R = 10.0 ohms, C = 1 mf, V = 10.0 volts, i0 = 0.0, and q0 = 0.0. Calculate i(t) and q(t) for t = 0.0 to 0.05 s. What is the maximum current, and at what time does it occur?
equation
20. The angular displacement ( ) (radians) of a frictionless pendulum is governed by the
2 + =0 (0)= ′(0)= ′ 2 0 0
where g is the acceleration of gravity (9.80665 m/s2) and L is the length of the pendulum (m). For small , the governing equation simplifies to
2 + = 0 2
Solve for ( ) for one period of oscillation for (0.0) = 0.1 0.5 , ′(0.0) = 0.0, and L = 0.1, 1.0, and 10.0 m, using the simplified equation.
21. The population of two species competing for the same food supply can be modeled by the pair of ODEs: 1 = ( − − ) (0) =
111112 1 1,0 2 = ( − − ) (0) =

where AN is the birthrate, BN models the death rate due to disease, and 1 2 models
222221 2 2,0
2
the death rate due to competition for the food supply. If (0.0)= (0.0)=
12 100,000, 1 = 0.1, 1 = 0.0000008, and 2 = 0.0000001, calculate 1( ) 2( )
for t = 0.0 to 10.0 years.
22. Consider a projectile of mass m (kg) shot upward at the angle (radians) with respect to the horizontal at the initial velocity 0 (m/s). The two ODEs that govern the displacement, x(t) and y(t) (m), of the projectile from the launch are ′
2 = − | | (0) = 0 (0) = (0) = 2 0
2 = − | | − (0) = 0 ′(0) = (0) = 2 0
where the vector velocity V = iu + jv, u = dx/dt and v = dy/dt, C is a drag parameter, = tan−1( / ), and g is the acceleration of gravity (9.80665 m/s2). For m = 10.0 kg, C = 0.1 N-s2/m2, V0 = 500.0 m/s, = 1.0 radian, and a level terrain, calculate (a) the maximum height attained by the projectile, (b) the corresponding time, (c) the maximum range of the projectile, (d) the corresponding time, and (e) the velocity V at impact.
23. The temperature distribution in a cylindrical rod made of a radioactive isotope is governed
′
2 + 1 = 1 + 2 (0) = 0 ( ) = 0
by the ordinary differential equation
2
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Solve this problem for T(r), where R = 1.0 and A = -100.0.
24. The velocity distribution in the laminar boundary layer formed when an incompressible fluid flows over a flat plate is related to the solution of the ordinary differential equation
′′
3 + 2 =0 (0)=0, (0)=0, ( )→1 →∞
3 2
where f is a dimensionless stream function, the velocity u is proportional to ′( ), and is proportional to distance normal to the plate. Solve this problem for ( ).

25. The deflection of a simply supported and uniformly loaded beam is governed by the ordinary differential equation (for small deflections)
2 = − + 2 (0) = 0 ( ) = 0 2 2 2
where q is the uniform load per unit length, L is the length of the beam, I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross section, and E is the modulus of elasticity. For a rectangular beam, = h3/12, where w is the width and h is the height. Consider a beam (E = 200 GN/m2) 5.0m long, 5.0 cm wide, and 10.0 cm high, which is subjected to the uniform load q = – 1,500 N/m on the 5.0 cm face. Solve for the deflection y(x)
26. When the load on the beam described in problem 120 is applied on the 10.0 cm face, the deflection will be large. In that case, the governing differential equation is
( 2 / 2) = − + 2 [1 + ( / )2]3/2 2 2
For the properties specified in problem 120, determine y(x).
27. The angular displacement ( ) of a frictionless pendulum is governed by the ODE ′ ′ + = 0 ( 0 ) = 0 ′ ( 0 ) = 0′

Reduce this second-order ODE to a pair of first-order ODEs and use Fourth-order Runge-
Kutta Method to solve the equation using L=0.56 m.
28. The governing equation for the displacement y(t) of a projectile shot vertically upward is
′′ + | | = − (0) = 0, ′(0) = (0) = 0
where V = dy/dt is the projectile velocity, C is the drag parameter, and g is the acceleration of gravity. Reduce this second-order ODE to a pair of first-order ODEs and use Fifth-order Runge-Kutta Method to solve the equation using C=0.0278 N/kg.
29. The governing ODEs for the position, x(t) and y(t) of a projectile shot at an angle with
′′ + | | = 0 (0) = 0, ′′(0) = (0) = 0
respect to the horizontal are
′′ + | | = − (0) = 0, ′(0) = (0) = 0
where = ( 2 + 2)1/2, = tan−1( / ), u = dx/dt, v = dy/dt, C is a drag parameter, and
g is the acceleration of gravity. Reduce this pair of coupled second-order ODEs to a set of four first-order ODEs and use Fourth-order Runge-Kutta Method to solve the equation using C=0.0278 N/kg..
.
30. When a fluid flows over a surface, the shear stress ( / 2) at the surface is given by the
expression
= where is the viscosity (N-s/m2), is the velocity parallel to the surface (m/s), and y is the distance normal to the surface (cm). Measurements of the velocity of an air stream flowing above a surface are made with an LDV (laser Doppler-velocimeter). The values given in Table 3 were obtained.
Table 1. Velocity Measurements
At the local temperature, = 0.00024 − / 2. Calculate (a) the difference table for u(y), (b) du/dy at the surface based on first-, second-, and third-order polynomials, (c) the corresponding values of the shear stress at the surface, and (d) the shear force acting on a flat plate 10 cm long and 5 cm wide.
y u y u
0.0 0.00 2.0 88.89
1.0 55.56 3.0 100.00

Question 22: Health Care

Marguerite M and the Angiogram Case

Answer the case questions found at the end of the case narrative; be sure to respond using well-thought-ot and well-written statements being mindful of spelling, grammar and clarity of statements. Each question must be answer with a minimum of 300-350 words.
A grading rubric is also provided

Case Study Grading Rubric
Purpose: Discussion Cases are based on real-life occurrences and offer practical application of information discussed within chapters. These cases are used to stimulate and draw upon the student’s critical-thinking skills and problem-solving ability.
Five Criteria for each question Focus Specificity Support Throughtfulness Use of Language
Excellent
(40 – 50 points) Responses may vividly clear and accurate references to each specific question. Majority of responses include specific details. Response are well- supported. Responses are articulate and show a high-level of thought. Writing is well- organized, unified, and error-free.
Good
(31 – 39 points) Responses make some references to questions but do not address each of them in a clear and accurate manner. Some responses include specific details. Responses are somewhat well- supported. Responses show some thought. Writing is somewhat organized and unified, with some errors.
Fails to meet expectations (0 – 30 points) Responses make very few clear and accurate references to questions posed. No responses include specific details. Responses are not supported. Comments show no thought. Writing is not organized or unified; errors impair communication.

CASE STUDY #3 (CHAPTER 13)
THE CASE OF MARGUERITE AND THE ANGIOGRAM
Marguerite M., an 89-year-old widow, was admitted into the cardiac intensive care unit in Chicago’s Memorial Hospital at 3:00 A.M. on a Sunday morning with a massive heart attack (myocardial infarction). Her internist, Dr. K., who is also a close family friend, has ordered an angiogram to determine the status of Marguerite’s infarction (heart attack). Dr. K. has found that the angiogram and resulting treatment need to be done within the first six hours after an infarction in order to be effective. Therefore, the procedure is going to be done as soon as the on-call surgical team can set up the angiography room. The radiologist, who lives 30 minutes from the hospital, must also be in the hospital before the procedure can begin. At 4:30 A.M. the team is ready to have Marguerite, who is barely conscious, transferred from the intensive care unit (ICU) to the surgical suite.
Coincidentally, at 4:30 A.M. Sarah W., an unconscious 45-year-old woman, is brought in by ambulance with a massive heart attack. The emergency room (ER) physicians, after conferring with her physician by phone, conclude that she will need a balloon angiography (dilating an obstructed vessel by threading a balloon-tipped catheter into the vessel) to save her life. When they call the surgical department to have the on-call angiography team brought in, they are told the room is already set up for Dr. K’s patient. They do not have another team or surgical room for Sarah. A decision is made that since Sarah needs the balloon angiography in order to survive, they will use the angiography team for her.
Dr. K. is called at home and told that his patient, Marguerite, will not be able to have the angiogram. The hospital is going to use the angiography team for Sarah, since she is younger than Marguerite and has a greater chance for recovery. Unfortunately, it took longer than expected to stabilize Sarah before and after the procedure and the six-hour “window” when the procedure could be performed on Marguerite passed. Marguerite expired (died) the following morning.
Case Questions
⦁ Do you believe that this case presents a legal or ethical problem, or both?
⦁ What do you believe should be the criteria for a physician to use when having to choose between a solution that benefits one patient at the expense of another?
⦁ How can Dr. K. justify this decision when speaking to the family of Marguerite M.?
⦁ What options does a member of the angiography team or caregiver for Marguerite have if he or she disagrees with this decision?

Question 23: Mathematics

1Find g(p) given g(x)=-x^2+4x+4

Question 24: Business

Business Policy/Strategic Planning Assignment 2

Bed Bath and Beyond
Prepare the following section for this assignment (note: the purpose of this assignment is to ensure successful progress is being made toward completion of the final Company/Case Analysis and to provide a continued review by the professor of the APA requirements):
⦁ Cover page
⦁ What is this organization’s strategy to compete? Is the strategy working? Perform a complete, fully developed with explanations, SWOT analysis. (A minimum of eight components for element of SWOT, along with the identification and justification of the UT: Ultimate Threat is required: 8 components for each SWOT element=C, 11=B, 14=A).

Question 25: Business

Business Policy/Strategic Planning Essay questions

⦁ What is meant by the term “Corporate Culture?” Summarize the “Golfer” article, include each of the “key” concepts from this article, and then provide a comparison of each of these “keys” to your current or last job. Can play and fun interfere with constructive employee efforts? Explain. Discuss how to incorporate (and then implement) “fun” into the strategic planning process.

2. List and explain four key, core competencies that will assist any organization in developing an employee-based, sustainable competitive advantage? Many organizations are faced with the human resource problem: “the right people aren’t in the right jobs.” Should the leaders of the organization in your case (or place of employment, current or immediate past) spend more time selecting, appraising, and developing people? Why? Is this the solution to strategy execution? Why?
3.Discuss these statements from your point of view (agree or disagree and why):
⦁ “In creating a strategy-supportive reward structure it is important to define jobs and assignments in terms of the results to be accomplished, not just in terms of the duties to be performed.”
⦁ “The use of incentives and rewards is the simple most powerful tool at management’s disposal to win strong employee commitment to carrying out the strategic plan.?
4. Summarize each of the following three models and then compare and contrast each:
⦁ BCG Model
⦁ GE Model
⦁ Product Lifecycle

5. Discuss the differences between a vision and a mission. Why are organizations finding it difficult to execute the strategies that they design? Discuss in detail (with three examples from the Bed Bath, and Beyond) how an organization implements strategies effectively.
6. What is the value of a SWOT analysis? What are the key considerations to performing this analysis? How does it contribute to the task of crafting strategy? Why is it appropriate to argue that good strategy-making and good strategy-implementing are valid signs of good management?
7. Using the industry from Bed Bath and Beyond, explain the major factors that enter into an assessment of whether an industry does or does not have long-term attractiveness? Can an industry be attractive to one company and unattractive to another? Why? How does a company develop a competitive capability and then the ultimate competitive advantage?
8. Perform a SWOT Analysis on/for Indiana Tech, listing four examples for each component of the SWOT, along with the UT (ultimate threat).
9. Discuss the relationship of a continuous improvement program to the strategic planning process. How can a total quality culture be the ultimate strategic competitive advantage? Explain through three examples.
10. Explain the following quote and provide a plan of action with four examples, in regards to “what it takes to get it done.” “Implementing and executing strategy is the ultimate task of strategic management. It involves seeing what it will take to ‘make it happen,’ then getting it done in a manner that achieves the targeted results.”
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Question 26: Business

Business Policy/Strategic Planning

Company Analysis and Questions: Bed Bath & Beyond
⦁ Cover page
⦁ Historical background of the company (3-5 pages)
⦁ Discuss the distinguishing features (Market size, Market growth rate, Industry strength, etc.) of the industry that the company is in.

Question 27: Accounting

Financial Derivative

Mr Yong is an investor who is always wavering in his decisions. On day 1, he went long 3 SIF contracts of June maturity. On day 2, he shorted 2 June SIF contracts. A few days later, he sold a June index call option and simultaneously bought a June index put option. Assuming all contracts were bought/sold at the same exercise/strike prices, what is Mr Yong’s net position now?

Question 28: Finance

In the textbook, we learned about the CAMELS system for rating banks. For this assignment, research and provide specific information on what CAMELS measures. Below is the recommended format for your assignment.
⦁ Include a title page (page 1).
⦁ Find the CAMELS rating for one of the top five banks (JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, Citigroup, or Goldman Sachs) on the FDIC website ⦁ here. Provide an analysis of their scores. What do they mean for the bank (page 2)?
⦁ Chart the risks associated with each financial institution (page 3).
⦁ Include a reference page (page 4).
Your submission should be a minimum of two pages in length, not counting the title and reference pages. All sources must be properly cited; all references should be formatted in APA style.

Question 29: Business

Four types of questions that can help a business studies teacher to gauge how effectively learners are learning

Question 30: Business

Activities that can be used by Enterpreneurship teachers to effectively assess learners formatively during

Question 31: Sociology

Assignment: You are to observe, record & interpret a social situation (the environment, material culture, people, what they do, say, feel, how it smells- use all of your senses!). (6 pages including reference).

Instruction
I. Introduce your topic: what are you going to write about and why did you choose it? You might provide some background to tell me about this. II. Record and describe a social situation to the fullest you can. Do not leave out details but describe it to the fullest you can, do not evaluate it yet. III. Analyze it: that is evaluate the social situation based on criteria you select This means you are going to evaluate the social situation in which you observed people doing something….according to criteria you find interesting. It can be social status, rank, economics, reciprocity, political situation, descent, kinship, status, as a form of religious practice, etc. You can use Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical model to explain your setting and its social interaction. Examples: a) You might consider looking at your social situation for evidence of status or political preference, ethnicity, community. b) You might analyze a celebration you attend in your community. How is this social event a representation of American culture? IV. Interpret: Finally, explain why your observations are important given the context of the situation

Questions 1: General Questions

NSG 6435 Week 8 Quiz/ NSG6435 Week 8 Quiz (Latest): South University (Already graded A)
NSG 6435 Week 8 Quiz/ NSG6435 Week 8 Quiz (Latest): South University (Already graded A)

Question 2: Business

HRM 530 Week 6 Dismal Meeting Imagine that you are an office manager and you have been tasked with the job of coordinating and heading the dismissal meeting for an employee layoff. Write a six to eight (6-page paper in which you:
PROPOSE THREE (3) WAYS THAT A MANAGER CAN COPE WITH ANY NEGATIVE EMOTIONS THAT MAY ACCOMPANY AN EMPLOYEE LAYOFF.
DESCRIBE A STEP-BY-STEP PROCESS OF CONDUCTING THE DISMISSAL MEETING
DETERMINE THE COMPENSATION THAT THE FICTITIOUS COMPANY MAY PROVIDE TO THE SEPARATED EMPLOYEE.
CREATE A CHART THAT DEPICTS THE TIMELINE OF THE DISBURSEMENT OF THE COMPENSATION.
PREDICT THREE (3) WAYS THAT THIS LAYOFF MAY AFFECT THE COMPANY.
3-REFERENCES

Question 3: Business

Choose one (1) public corporation in an industry with which you are familiar. Research the company on its own Website, the public filings on the Securities and Exchange Commission EDGAR database (http://www.sec.gov/edgar.shtml), in the University’s online databases, and any other sources you can find. The annual report will often provide insights that can help address some of these questions. Use Under Armour Company
Write a four to six (4-6) page paper in which you:
⦁ Assess how globalization and technology changes have impacted the corporation you researched.
⦁ Apply the industrial organization model and the resource-based model to determine how your corporation could earn above-average returns.
⦁ Assess how the vision statement and mission statement of the corporation influence its overall success.
⦁ Evaluate how each category of stakeholder impacts the overall success of this corporation.
⦁ Use at least three (3) quality references. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not quality as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
⦁ This course requires use of Strayer Writing Standards (SWS). The format is different than other Strayer University courses. Please take a moment to review the SWS documentation for details.
⦁ Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
⦁ Determine ways in which the vision, mission, and stakeholders of a firm impact that firm’s overall success.
⦁ Use technology and information resources to research issues in business administration.
⦁ Write clearly and concisely about business administration using proper writing mechanics.

Question 4: Business

1) Explain the connection between the US trade deficit and financial capital flows.
2) Explain how comparative advantage determines the pattern of trade. Use an example to aid in your explanation.
3) Explain how the Stolper-Samuelson theorem indicates that free trade will (likely) worsen income inequality in the US, but (likely) narrow it for Mexico.
4) Show the effects on US welfare from each of the following events. a. Imposition of a tariff on a small, perfectly competitive market b. Imposition of a tariff on a small, imperfectly competitive market c. Imposition of a tariff on a large, perfectly competitive market
5) Show the effects on US welfare from each of the following events. a. Imposition of a quota on a small, perfectly competitive market b. Imposition of a quota on a small, imperfectly competitive market
6) If the US is a large importing country and imposes a tariff on the import of a good, what will the welfare effect on the exporting country be?
7) Assume that the US is a large country in the semi-conductor market. If the US is an exporter of the good and experiences a technological improvement, will the US always be better off? Show and explain why or why not.
8) National security demands have made it imperative for the US to close the toilet paper trade gap (just think what would happen in times of war if we couldn’t produce our own!). The government has decided to reduce our imports from 100 million units to 90 million units. As the supreme TP czar, which of the following policies should be chosen? Show and explain why. a. A production subsidy b. A consumption tax c. An import tariff
9) Show why in a competition between the Boeing and Airbus that autarky may be the preferred welfare situation to free trade. Explain how you draw this conclusion. 10) Explain why a VER is likely to generate lower welfare than a quota.
10) Explain why a VER is likely to generate lower welfare than a quota.
11) Explain what constraints the WTO places on US government actions.
12) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of fixed and flexible exchange rates. In your answer, consider the ramifications for fiscal and monetary policy.
13) Explain how trade may reduce pressure for immigration.
14) For each of the following cases indicate the expected change in the equilibrium exchange rate (€/$). Use supply and demand analysis (no credit without the graph). a) an increase in EU interest rates b) a fall in the price level in the US c) an increase in US barriers to imports from the EU
15) Explain why labor unions may wish to oppose international trade. Does this entail that this is a “good” government policy? Explain.
16) Explain why “dumping” is considered to be unfair trade. Does dumping – if unfair or not – cause harm in the dumped upon country? What condition is required for harm to accrue?
17) What is a senescent industry? How is protection for international trade supposed to aid this industry? How is it supposed to aid the country? Under what conditions will the aid actually accrue to the industry and the country?
1) Explain what is meant by “dollarization.” What might lead a country to make this choice for managing its money supply?
2) Explain how a managed float differs from a freely floating (flexible) exchange rate.
3) What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of fixed v. flexible exchange rate systems?
4) For each of the following cases, explain that is the “best” tool for the goal trying to be achieved. Clearly demonstrate why this is the “best” tool. a) The US wishes to contain pollution generated by the consumption of widgets. b) The US wishes to protect jobs in the widgets sector. c) The US wishes to restrain imports in the widgets sector to reduce the trade imbalance with Widgeria.
5) How does the existence of “3-way trades” undermine the usefulness of the supply and demand model of the exchange rate for precisely predicting what the exchange rate will be?
1) Explain how a fixed exchange rate may contribute to a currency crisis? Is any fixed exchange rate subject to this risk?
2) Given the following information where should you invest in order to maximize your return? e = 0.001 $/peso f = 0.0011 $/peso Nominal interest rate in the US = 8% Nominal interest rate in Mexico = 10% Given your investment pattern, how do you expect the variables to evolve over time?
3) What is the Law of One Price? Under what assumptions does the Law of One Price lead to the Purchasing Power Parity model of exchange rates?
4) Suppose that the money supply in the US falls. What will happen to the value of the dollar in the foreign exchange markets? Justify your answer using at least two (2) models of the exchange rate.
1) For each of the following changes, show the direction of shift (if any) for the IS curve. a) An increase in the foreign price level b) A fall in foreign income levels c) An increase in domestic tax rates d) A strengthening of the dollar in the foreign exchange markets e) A collapse in business confidence f) An increase in the money supply
2) For each of the following changes, show the direction of shift (if any) for the LM curve. a) An increase in the domestic price level b) A decrease in the money supply c) A fall in the precautionary demand for money d) A strengthening of the dollar in the foreign exchange markets

Question 5: Business

Finite Mathematics

⦁ 1. Why is it important to represent data with graphing
tools?

2. What are the similarities and differences between a histogram and a frequency table?

3. What is the difference between a frequency polygon and a cumulative frequency polygon? Explain.

4. In a given frequency table, if represents the total sum of the frequencies and if denotes a frequency of a class, then what is the relative frequency of that class in terms of and? Explain.

5. What is the difference between the relative frequency and the cumulative relative frequency?

6. In constructing the ogive, do we need to know what is the frequency of each class, or knowing the cumulative for each class is sufficient? Explain.

7. A given frequency table has 3 classes, Class1, Class2, and Class3. To total number of frequencies is 10 and Class1 and Class2 have frequencies 2 and 3 respectively. What is the relative frequency of Class3?

8. Compute the mean of the following data: 4, 3, 6, 6, 6. Explain your work.

9. Given the following data: 3, 3, 4, 5, 7, 7, 7. What is the mode, median, and the mean? Explain.

10. A fair die is rolled 300 times and each time the result is recorded. What would you expect the mean of the formed data set be? Explain.

11. A data set is formed by recording the sums on a 100 rolls of a pair of a fair dice. What would you expect the mean of the data set be?

12. Construct a set of four numbers that have mean 10, mode 8, and median 9. Explain.

13. Suppose we have a data of size two, say x1 and x2 whose mean is 5. If , compute the value of x2.

14. Suppose that we have the data {x1, x2, …, xn} such that =…. What is the mean of the data? What is the standard deviation?

15. In the formula for the mean of the grouped data, what do you get when you have all group frequencies equal to 1?

16. Compute the standard deviation of the following data: 3, 3, 4, 6.

17. Suppose we have a data of size two, say x1 and x2. What is the standard deviation?

18. Explain why the variance is never negative.

19. Suppose we have a data whose standard deviation is zero. What conclusion can you derive about the data?

20. Two data sets of the same size have standard deviations s1 and s2. If s1<s2, then how do these data sets compare?

21. A data set is formed by recording the sums in 200 rolls of a pair of a dice. A second data set is formed by recording the results of 200 draws of a ball from a box containing 11 balls numbered 2 through 12. Which of the data sets would you expect to have a smaller standard deviation? Explain.

22. Assume that we have a data of size 3 with mean 5 and mode 3. Compute the standard deviation.

Question 6: Mathematics

Finite Mathematics
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